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ARISTOPHANES, LYSISTRATA
GREEK THEATRE
As an art form, Greek theatre has its origins in the religious festivals, such as The Great Dionysia and the Lenaea, in the sixth century BCE. These festivals were held every year, over a period of four to five days, and the plays were performed as part of a competition. The archon or chief magistrate of the city selected one poet who would present a trilogy of three plays and one satyr play, for comic relief. In addition, two comedies by two other poets were presented. The production of the plays was financed largely out of public funds: actors were paid by the state and choruses by private citizens. A choregoi, who was usually an affluent citizen, looked after the aspects of production, such as costumes and selection of chorus, and a jury of ten members selected the winners. Inhabitants of the city would have flocked to see these plays, performed during religious festivals. The plays were performed in large open-air theatres, with a seating capacity of 14- 20,000 spectators. The amphitheatre, semi-circular in shape, was usually built out of a hill-side and in the shape of a truncated, inverted cone. (Figure 1) The last row of seats would have been around a hundred and twenty feet from the ground. The central performing area, known as the orchestra, was circular in shape, with a diameter of around eighty-five feet. This is where the chorus would have stood and danced, throughout the play. Sometimes, the actor would enter the orchestra but the chorus never left it. Behind the orchestra was the skene, a two-storey wooden structure meant to represent any building or its interior; such as a palace, temple or cave. With a door, it provided an entry point for the actors and, most probably, a place where they could change costumes for the next part. In front of the skene was a raised platform. In 2. GREEK THEATRE 131 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature Lysistrata, the skene would have represented the Acropolis, where the women have laid siege
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Resources were limited, so there were very few changes of scene. Events that took place offstage were narrated by a messenger. Sometimes, mechanical devices like a crane or deux ex machina was used to show the entry of gods and an ekkyklema or a wheeled trolley was used to show indoor scenes. In Sophocles’ Antigone, for instance, the body of Eurydice would have been brought out on an ekkyklema. Many of these amphitheatres, built between the fourth and second centuries BCE, stand on archaeological sites all over Greece and form a major tourist attraction. There are fifteen such ancient theatres and the Dionysian theatre, on the slope of the Acropolis in Athens is the 132 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English oldest and considered the birthplace of drama. In the image above, you can observe the layout of one such theatre. Note the arrangement of ascending seats and the circular orchestra, which forms a model for similar structures even today. However, the skene, which was a temporary wooden structure is missing here. It is important to remember that the plays were performed in conditions very different from modern theatre, which allows a great deal of freedom as far as representation of emotions is concerned. The actor in Greek plays had to depend on his voice and gestures to make an impact on the audience. You would be interested to know that the acoustics of these theatres are so good that the actor’s voice would have reached the spectators seated in the last row. It is reported that, even today, in the theatre of Epidaurus, the sound of a coin dropping on the floor can be heard in the last rows.
It was not a naturalistic theatre of the kind we are used to and subtle, nuanced acting would have been lost in those surroundings. Plays were always performed in daylight and under an open sky. All actors wore masks, with exaggerated expressions painted on them
making it easier for the audience to read facial expressions from a distance and one actor to play many parts. The masks would fit the face, had wigs attached, and open mouths to allow clear speech. In addition, there were holes for the eyes and ears. These masks or prosopon were made of wood, leather, or linen and were of stock characters: angry old man, servant, young lover, courtesan. Historians list twenty-six types of masks in tragedy and around fortyfour in comedy. In Figures 2 and 3, there are images of reproductions of ancient Greek comic masks. The actual masks used in Greek theatre were burned as an offering to Dionysus, in whose honour the plays were performed. Archaeological evidence, like numerous paintings on Grecian urns and small terracotta figurines, helped historians reconstruct these. There are around two hundred such mixing vessels, depicting theatrical performances, at various places all over the world. It is an attestation of how important theatre was for ancient Greeks. The rule about the number of actors was rigid and only four actors were allowed to perform. This was done to save the cost to the state, which paid these professional actors. Men performed all the parts in the plays; those of women included. Some believe that it could have been due to the paucity of professional actors. Some male actors specialized in playing female parts. In Lysistrata, four actors would have performed some twenty parts and the chorus, as was the custom, would have remained on the stage throughout. However, poets didn’t always conform to these rules. Aristophanes has two choruses in the play, comprising twelve actors each. In comedy, the actors wore short tunics with padding and large phalli. Characters from the upper strata of society wore long robes and high platform heels underneath. In this short space it is not possible to present an exhaustive account of ancient Greek theatre. However, it is important to be aware of these to fully appreciate the contribution of Greek theatre in the development of drama. Activity 1 With the help of online resources, write brief notes on; – The City Dionysia – Masks in ancient Greek theatre 134 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English Aristophanes’ work belongs to the period known as Old Comedy (445 – 385 BCE) and he is the only poet whose works have come down to us. Not much is known about Aristophanes, except what can be gleaned from his plays. It is speculated that he was born around 449 BCE and, in a career spanning around forty years, he wrote forty plays. However, only eleven of his plays are available today. His first play, The Banqueters won a prize at the City Dionysia in 427 BCE and his second play, The Babylonians won the first prize the following year. The subject matter of tragedy was borrowed from ancient mythology or legend, with each poet giving his own treatment. In comedy, the plays dealt with more topical matters; satirizing politicians and social evils. The subject matter of Aristophanes’ plays is diverse, ranging from political and social satire to mythological parodies, as in Birds. The Clouds (423 BCE) is a satire against the famous philosopher Socrates and Frogs (405 BCE), an attack of Euripides. Three of his plays have war and peace as their subject: Acharnians (425 BCE), Peace (421 BCE), and Lysistrata (411 BCE). Lysistrata is the last of the peace plays and it is a dream about peace, at a time when Athens was going through a political crisis. More of this will be discussed in the next section. Athens was at the height of her power when Aristophanes was a young boy. All adult males had an equal say in policy decisions; taken in the Assembly by a show of hands. Under the strong leadership of Pericles, Athens had successfully fought a war against Persia, becoming an indomitable power at sea. Between 462 - 431 BCE, Pericles transformed the city, spending money on public buildings, such as the Acropolis; as revenue poured in from confederate states. He transformed a military alliance into the Athenian empire. At the time, Sparta was the greatest power on land and growing resentment and dissatisfaction with Athenian supremacy led to war in 431 BCE. After Pericles’ death, Cleon took over and the war dragged on, ending in a compromise in 421 BCE, known as the Peace of Nicias, in which Sparta suffered the greater losses. After six years of peace, in 415 BCE, Athens provoked another war with the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta, launching an attack on Sicily in 413 BCE. However, Athens suffered the destruction of its naval force in 4. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR (431-404 BCE) 3. ARISTOPHANES 135 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature Sicily; losing two hundred of its ships and around twenty thousand men, and was surrounded by hostile Spartan forces and Persian governors. By 411 BCE, when Lysistrata was written, Athens had regained its naval strength and there were rumours of negotiations between Sparta and Persia. It is against this backdrop that the events in the play take place. Eventually, Athens went on to surrender to Sparta in 404 BCE, forever ending its political supremacy over Greece and bringing the golden age of Greece to an end. Greek theatre followed many conventions as far as structure was concerned. The plays usually followed a set pattern, which I will briefly touch upon. It was not divided into acts or scenes but other demarcations were well-defined. These are briefly listed; Prologos: this is the Prologue or the beginning of the play, where there is an exposition of the main situation. Parodos: this is the first appearance of the chorus. Agon: this is generally followed by the Agon or contest, which literally translates into a debate between two antagonists, one of whom loses. Parabasis: an ode in which the chorus members remove their masks and address the audience directly. Episodes: these scenes involve the actors in dialogue with each other and the chorus. Stasimon: this refers to the choral song, following each scene. No other actor is present at this point. Exodos: this is the exit scene, usually depicting feasting, singing, and dancing. The chorus, as mentioned earlier, stayed in the middle of the performing area throughout the play and the lyrics were sung by them in unison, to the accompaniment of musical instruments. Aristophanes’ play follows this pattern in most parts. However, a noticeable innovation is the inclusion of two choruses, comprising twelve members each. You will notice how almost each major scene is followed by a choral song. The choral songs were an integral part of Greek theatre, serving as a moral indicator, especially in tragedy. One of the two choruses in Lysistrata comprises twelve old men as, presumably, the young ones are away, fighting the war. They are comic figures, weak and bashed up by the old women. There are indications in the play that they are former soldiers, now dependent on 5. THE STRUCTURE OF GREEK COMEDY 136 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English the state for a pension. The other chorus of twelve old women are from the lower strata of society: “inn-keepers, bakers, garlic vendors” (158). The title of the play refers to its main protagonist, Lysistrata, whose name means ‘liquidator of armies.’ She is an Athenian and proud to be one. Tired of the suffering around her, she decides to do something to establish peace in her country. The name Lysistrata resonates with the name Lysimache (which means ‘liquidator of battles) who was the high-priestess in Athena’s temple and one of the most visible public figures at the time. At the beginning of the play, Lysistrata is waiting for all the women she has summoned, from across the various city states of Greece. Line 1-254: Prologos Lysistrata is seen standing outside her house, impatiently waiting for the women to turn up. Her friend Calonice explains that they must have got delayed because of household chores. Lysistrata is excited and she tells Calonice that “we women have the salvation of all Greece in our hands” (142). Soon, women from different parts of Greece turn up: Boeotian women led by Ismenia, Spartan women led by Lampito, and women from Corinth. Note how they are depicted; Lampito speaks in a rustic style and Ismenia stinks. There are references to smelly shrubs and body types, pointing to inter-state rivalries. Lysistrata begins by touching on their personal hardship; “The fathers of your children - don’t you miss them when they’re away at the war?” (145). She then describes her simple plan to force all participants in the war to end it: the women should all get together and go on a sex strike; LYSISTRATA: Then I will tell you my plan: there’s no point in keeping it back. Women, if we want the men to make peace, we must renounce – [She hesitates]. MYRRHINE: Renounce what? Go on. LYSISTRATA: Then you’ll do it? MYRRHINE: At the cost of our lives, if need be. [All indicate enthusiastic agreement.] LYSISTRATA: Very well then. We must renounce – sex (145). 6. STUDY GUIDE 137 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature Lysistrata’s proposal is met with disapproval from all the women, except the Spartan Lampito. However, Lampito thinks that the abundant wealth of Athens, lying in the state treasury in the Acropolis might form a hurdle, as the men would still have access to abundant resources for the war. Aristophanes’ play follows this pattern in most parts. However, a noticeable innovation is the inclusion of two choruses, comprising twelve members each. Lysistrata declares that they are going to occupy the Acropolis that very day. In an apparent parody of Greek heroic customs, the women fill a bowl with grape juice and take an oath to abstain from sex, till their husbands agree to make peace. In the first unit of this paper, you must have read the Odyssey, which is a celebration of Greek heroism. The epic is peppered with incidents where the warriors sacrifice animals and offer their blood to the gods, before taking an oath or in an attempt to placate an angry god. Here, the women do not kill any animal, but use grape juice. Suddenly a shout is heard: the Citadel of Athena has been captured. Lampito is asked to leave her companions behind and return to Sparta with a proposal to negotiate peace. Note how Lysistrata has brought together women from different city-states of Greece. Her purpose is to create a peaceful nation – one that rises above the rivalries between the different states. The women are in agreement as far as the need for peace is concerned. They use surprisingly bawdy language and there are numerous jokes about sexual positions and sex toys. This part of the play forms the Prologos, where the central issue of the play is set out. Line 254–705: Parodos, Agon, and Parabesis A chorus of old men appears. Aristophanes has broken from tradition and included two choruses of twelve men and twelve women each in this play. The men are carrying logs of wood and pots in which to burn the logs. Their aim is to drive the women out of the Acropolis, with the help of smoke. They keep muttering derogatory remarks against the women; calling them “a pestilent disease” and “enemies of the gods” (151). The old men try, Check Your Progress i) Define the prologos. ii) Why does Lysistrata plan to lay siege to the Acropolis? iii) Why is Lampito sent back to Sparta? 138 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English without much success, to burn the logs that they have brought with them. The Men’s Leader prays to Athena Nike, the goddess of victory, for help. The second chorus, comprising twelve old women and led by Stratyllis, comes on stage. They are carrying pitchers of water and are equally dismissive of the men, calling them “old half-wits” and a “gang of male scum” (153, 154). They have come, determined to help their companions. It is interesting how Aristophanes sets up an opposition between the two genders; through the two choruses and symbolic associations of fire with war and water with peace. As mentioned earlier, the first appearance of the chorus is known as the parodos. The men and women keep exchanging bitter insults and threats, ending in the women throwing water on the men. This marks a victory for them, as they have sabotaged the old, seasoned warriors’ attempt to drive the women out of the Acropolis. A Magistrate enters at this point, accompanied by four Scythian policemen and two slaves, carrying crowbars. The Leader of the men complains to him about the women beating them up. Like the male chorus, the Magistrate speaks disparagingly about the women and thinks it is “the unbridled licentiousness of the female sex displaying itself” (154). To prove his point, he recalls how, at a time when a politician named Demostratus was urging the Athenian Assembly to send a naval expedition to Sicily, how a drunk woman was lamenting the death of Adonis on her rooftop. The young Adonis was worshipped as a god in Athens, as he was the mortal lover of Aphrodite, ancient Greek goddess of love; but he was killed by a boar and died in her arms The women mourned his death every year in a ritual lamentation on their rooftops. The drunk woman’s words could be viewed as an ominous portent, as Athens lost thousands of young soldiers in Sicily but Demostratus paid no heed to her. Even the Magistrate does not understand that the drunk woman was giving a veiled warning, though he curses Demostratus, calling him a “dirty villain” (156). The Magistrate needs money from the state treasury to buy timber to make oars. There is perhaps an oblique reference to the shortage of timber after Athens suffered the loss of almost her entire navy in Sicily. He orders his men to forcibly open the doors of the Acropolis with the help of crowbars. At this point, Lysistrata emerges and confronts the Magistrate, who orders his men to tie her up but the women, led by Stratyllis, threaten them. Lysistrata calls to the women inside the Acropolis and they come out. Following her orders, they punch and kick the constables and the Men’s Leader tells the Magistrate “not to deal with sub-human creatures” (159). The Magistrate asks Lysistrata; 139 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature MAGISTRATE [to Lysistrata]: Well, the first thing I want to know is – what in Zeus’ name do you mean by shutting and barring the gates of our own Acropolis against us? LYSISTRATA: We want to keep the money safe and stop you from waging war. MAGISTRATE: The war has nothing to do with money – LYSISTRATA: Hasn’t it? Why did Peisander, and all those other office-seekers, always keep stirring up trouble? To get more opportunities for stealing public funds, of course! (159-160) Peisander was considered to be a corrupt politician, who was bribed to bring about the Peloponnesian War. Lysistrata displays exceptional acumen in laying siege to the state treasury. She knows that the sex strike alone may not act as a strong deterrent against war. In a tactical move, worthy of a seasoned warrior, she ensures that the men of Athens are deprived of the money necessary to wage war. To the Magistrate’s assertion that women have no understanding of finances, she retorts that if women can be trusted to manage household funds, they can be trusted to control state funds and ensure peace. Lysistrata goes on to tell the Magistrate that women are not allowed to express an opinion, when it comes to matters of state. They are usually silenced by their own husbands when they attempt to question decisions taken in the Assembly. Now, the women have decided to take matters in their own hands and put an end to the mismanagement by the men. When the Magistrate taunts Lysistrata, she removes her veil and places it on his head. The women in the chorus applaud her action and pledge their support. Lysistrata predicts that one day, all the women will come to be known as “Liquidators of War” (162). She goes on to declare that she will put an end to the practice of men moving around in full armour, “like lunatics,” even when it is not necessary, as when they go shopping (162). She wants to put an end to displays of masculine aggression in public spaces. When the Magistrate asks Lysistrata how she proposes to deal with the current international situation she replies, using an extended metaphor of unravelling wool: “Actually, if you had any sense, you’d run the whole City on the model of the way we deal with wool” (163). She explains, in detail, the whole process - from cleaning the wool to creating a warm coat out of it. Read the passage carefully, as it illustrates the quality of statesmanship in Lysistrata: 140 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English Imagine the citizen body is a raw fleece. You start by putting it in a bath and washing out the dung; then lay it on a bed, beat out the villains with a stick and pick out the burrs. Then you have to deal with the cliques, who knot themselves together to get chosen for public office; you must card those out and pick off their heads. Then you card all the wool into the basket of Civic Goodwill – including everyone, immigrants, friendly foreigners – yes, and even those who are in debt to the Treasury! Not only that. There are many other states which are colonies of Athens. At the moment these are lying all over the place, like little flocks of wool. You should pick them up, bring them here, and put them together in one ball of wool – and from that you can weave the People a nice, warm coat to wear (164). This speech of Lysistrata’s demonstrates her deep understanding and wisdom. It is all the more remarkable that, though belonging to a patriarchal society where women could not vote, she prescribes a model of governance that is inclusive and intolerant of personal ambition and insurgency. Not surprisingly, the Magistrate dismisses her suggestions, pointing out that the women have made no contribution to the war effort. Lysistrata reminds him that it is the women who have provided sons for battle and have had to deal with their loss; a sacrifice that has gone unacknowledged and undocumented. This long exchange between the Magistrate and Lysistrata constitutes the agon in the play. The women adorn the Magistrate, as they would a corpse ready to be taken to the grave. Furious, he exits the stage with his slaves. Lysistrata and the two old women go back inside the Acropolis and the logs, pots, and pitchers are removed from the stage, leaving the two choruses facing each other on the stage. The chorus of men blame the Spartans for inciting the women and pose threateningly. Note that they remove their garments at this point. The women respond in similar fashion. They express their gratitude for the honour of being chosen to participate in the festivities and rituals associated with Athena Polis, the patron saint of the city. They also question the men about the whereabouts of the gold seized from the Persians during the war. There are mutual recriminations and the men withdraw when Stratyllis threatens them. This is the parabasis in the play. However, instead of addressing the audience, as was the convention, the two choruses fight with each other. 141 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature Lines 706 – 979: First episode and stasimon; second episode and stasimon This is the first episode of the play. Five days have passed since the women occupied the Acropolis. Lysistrata comes out in a state of agitation. The women have started to rebel against the sexual abstinence and come up with all sorts of excuses to return home to their husbands. One even pretends to be pregnant, by putting Athena’s helmet under her dress. There are many such farcical moments in the play. To motivate the women, Lysistrata tells them that she has an oracle that says that they will triumph if they stay united. The audience would have immediately understood that it was fake as oracles were supposed to be short, cryptic messages, whereas Lysistrata reads out a poem; ‘When the swallows escape from the hoopoes and gather together, Keeping away from the cock-birds, then trouble and sorrow will persish, Zeus will make high into low – But if the swallows rebel and fly from the sacred enclosure, Then ‘twill be patent to all that there’s no bird that’s so nymphomaniac’ (172). It is interesting to note that ‘swallow’ was slang for the female genitals and the ‘cock-birds’ a pun on male genitals. She returns inside with the women, leaving the two choruses facing each other. In this first stasimon, the choral song that follows an episode, the chorus of men sing of one Melanion, who is called wise because he “loathed women” (172). The women, in turn, sing praises of Timon, who detested the company of men but adored women. The two choruses move to opposite sides of the orchestra, the central performing area, and the women carry their own garments as well as the men’s. This is the first stasimon. Check Your Progress i) Why do the men bring logs of wood with them? ii) Comment on the metaphor of wool used by Lysistrata. iii) Why, in your opinion, do the men and women remove their garments? 142 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English In the second episode, Lysistrata appears on the ramparts and notices a man coming from afar: it is Cinesias, the husband of Myrrhine. He is described as being in a state of sexual excitation, which would have been depicted on the stage with the help of a leather phallus. Such conventions were the accepted norm at the time. He is accompanied by a male slave carrying his infant son. He appeals to his wife, Myrrhine to return home. Following Lysistrata’s instructions, Myrrhine tantalizes him with the possibility of sex but rushes back inside at the critical moment. Cinesias voices his frustration in sexually explicit language. A Spartan Herald enters; in the same condition as Cinesias. Observe how he attempts to hide his state by wearing a loose tunic. But it doesn’t go unnoticed. He complains that Lampito has incited the women of Sparta to go on a sex strike. He has come to Athens, to “talk of a settlement” (180). Cinesias urges the Herald to return to Sparta and send delegates to negotiate peace and he promises that he, on his part, will speak to the Council to choose delegates to represent Athens. Lysistrata’s strategy seems to have had its desired impact. They both leave the stage. In the second stasimon, the Men’s Leader expresses his loathing for the women. Stratyllis offers to dress him in his clothes and even removes a gnat that has been lodged in his eye. There is unmistakable symbolism in this act: Stratyllis helps the Men’s Leader see clearly. She wipes his tears and even kisses him. All the women in the chorus kiss the men. It is a moment of tenderness, displaying the best of feminine qualities; caring, compassion, and nurturing. There is none of the belligerence that dominated the exchanges between the choruses till now. They resolve to unite and sing songs together. They invite everyone to a banquet and even offer loans to anyone who needs one. Line 1071- 1214: Third episode and stasimon In the third episode, the Spartan delegates enter, all in a state of sexual arousal. The Athenian delegates also arrive; in the same state and trying to hide their embarrassment by leaning Check Your Progress i) Mention some of the excuses made by the women trying to return home. ii) Who is Cinesias? Why has he come for his wife? iii) Describe the change in Stratyllis’ behaviour at the end of the second stasimon. 143 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature forward. Lysistrata is called out as she’s “the only person who can bring about a true reconciliation” (185). She appears and calls out a young woman, aptly named ‘Reconciliation.’ The young woman is naked and it seems that it is another of Lysistrata’s strategic moves. The naked woman, as expected, keeps the delegates conveniently distracted while Lysistrata acts as a mediator. Remember that, in ancient Greek theatre, men played the parts of men and women both: so, ‘Reconciliation’ would have been a man dressed to look like a naked woman. Throughout this scene, Reconciliation remains silent. Lysistrata reminds the Spartans and Athenians of their common Greek heritage and how, in the past, they helped each other in times of crises. She persuades each side to return conquered territories and convince their allies to maintain peace in Greece. Note how the body of Reconciliation is used as a metaphor for different territories in this scene. The scene is a mix of sober and farcical elements. The seriousness of the situation is undermined by the presence of the naked Reconciliation. All the while that Lysistrata is acting as an arbitress, both the Spartan and Athenian men are preoccupied with thoughts of sex. She invites all of them to “maintain purity” and share the food the women have brought to the Acropolis (188). The chorus sings, offering wheat to whoever needs it, but also warning that the trunk might be empty. Line 1215 – 1321: Exodos A couple of Athenians enter the stage in a drunken state, satisfied that their negotiations with the Spartan delegates have gone well; “If the Athenians took my advice, they’d always go drunk on diplomatic missions” (190). When a Spartan delegate comes out, he sings of their camaraderie. Lysistrata appears, accompanied by the Athenian and Spartan women, wearing the aegis of Athena, protector of the city state. The aegis was a leather cloak, supposed to possess supernatural powers and decorated with the head of a Gorgon. She invokes various gods in the Greek pantheon, expressing gratitude for the “solemn vow” taken by the Athenian and Spartans (192). Aristophanes is clearly granting divine sanction to Lysistrata’s actions. The wives are reunited with their husbands and order restored. The Spartan sings another song and the play ends in general festivity. Check Your Progress i) Who is ‘Reconciliation’ and what does Lysistrata ask her to do? ii) What advice does Lysistrata have for the Athenian and Spartan delegates? 144 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English War and Peace As discussed in the Historical Background, the play was written in the backdrop of the Peloponnesian War. Almost every city-state of Greece was allied to either Athens or Sparta: two of the most powerful ones. Its main protagonist, Lysistrata speaks up against the human cost of war; MAGISTRATE: . . . What have you ever done for the war effort? LYSISTRATA: Done, curse you? For one thing, we’ve given you sons, and then had to send them off to fight. MAGISTRATE: Enough, don’t open old wounds. LYSISTRATA: For another, we’re in the prime of our lives, and how can we enjoy it, with our husbands always away on campaign and us left at home like widows? And quite apart from us married women, what about the unmarried ones who are slowly turning into old maids? (164) In an otherwise comic play, this sombre exchange highlights the suffering endured by women in times of war. The two choruses hurling abuses at each other – replete with bawdy jokes, puns, and references to male and female genitals - creates an opposition where men are identified with war and women with peace. Led by Lysistrata, the women go on a sex strike and capture the state treasury at the Acropolis. In the context of all these, it is not surprising that Lysistrata has been termed ‘anti-war’ in its stance. However, a close reading of the play suggests otherwise. As Sommerstein observes about Aristophanes: “It is an egregious mistake to portray him as a pacifist. He fully shares or at least regularly voices the pride felt by all Athenians in their victories over the Persians at Check Your Progress i) Why do the Athenians feel that it is better to go drunk on diplomatic missions? ii) Why is Lysistrata shown carrying Athena’s aegis? iii) Comment on the significance of the Spartan singing two songs in the end. 7. MAJOR THEMES IN THE PLAY 145 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature Marathon in 490 and Salamis in 480 . . .” (xx). The women are aware that the Acropolis has a vault where the money paid to Athens, as tribute by its allies, is stored. They accuse the men of squandering the wealth acquired by Athens: Where’s all the gold Your fathers took from Persian foes of old? You’ve squandered it and live instead on tax – (167). The play is not so much ‘anti-war’ as it is a vision of peace between Athens and Sparta; warring city-states of Greece. Throughout the play, we catch glimpses of the rivalry between these traditional foes. The Athenians think that the Spartans are uncouth and untrustworthy. As the Men’s Leader says: “he who trusts a Spartan trusts a snake” (165). However, Lysistrata tells the Athenians and Spartans; You worship the same gods at the same shrines, Use the same lustral water, just as if You were a single family – at Olympia, Delphi, Thermopylae – how many more Could I make mention of, if it were needed? And yet, though threatened by barbarian foes, You ruin Greece’s towns and slay her men (186). Here, she underlines their common religious and cultural heritage, and shared Greek identity. She goes on to remind the Athenians how Sparta helped them expel the tyrant Hippias; whereas the Athenians helped Sparta suppress a rebellion in Messenia. There is a warning of “barbarian foes” attacking in the future. As Sommerstein observes; “Aristophanes’ ideal vision of Greek politics, briefly mentioned in Peace (line 1082) and given concrete form in dance and song at the end of Lysistrata, is of Athens and Sparta ‘ruling Greece together’ in friendly collaboration” (xxi). It would not be incorrect to assume that the play is more pro-Sparta, rather than anti-war. As Lysistrata declares; “we women got together and decided to save Greece” (161). Her vision is of a Greece that stands united against the Persians. It is not a coincidence that, at the end of the play, it is a Spartan delegate who sings of their combined resistance to the Persian invasion of Greece in the past. He credits the 146 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English Athenians with victory against the Persians at the sea-battle at Artemisium in 480 BCE whereas, in reality, it was an inconclusive battle. Around the same time, in Thermopylae, the Spartan King Leonidas led his men from the Persian enemy. The fact that all the Spartans were eventually killed is conveniently omitted; SPARTAN: Send me thy child, the Muse of fame, Who knows the pride of Sparta’s name And Athens’ feats at sea, O holy Memory: How once they focht in days of yore Close by the Artemisium shore - Fu’ godlike were their deeds, And well they whipped their Medes [Persians]. Leonidas led us from home: Like boars, oor cheeks ran white wi’ foam, Like boars, oor teeth we whet, And doon our legs ran sweat. The Persian men they filled the land In numbers mair than grains o’sand, Whom we opposed that day At famed Thermopylae (191). The play has left behind an enduring legacy as a pacifist play. But we must not lose sight of the fact that Lysistrata speaks with a sense of Greek nationalism; not against war per se. Gender A large part of the play is devoted to bitter wrangling between the two choruses, comprising old men and old women, who stand at opposing ends of the orchestra and hurl abuses and insults at each other. In the middle of this is the strong, confident, and wise Lysistrata who decides on a unique strategy to end war between the two most powerful city-states of Greece. 147 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature The play has, understandably, been hailed as feminist by many readers. However, as with ‘anti-war,’ any label should be applied with caution. The play needs to be understood in its historical context. In Aristophanes’ time women did not have much of a position in a dominantly patriarchal society. Though lauded as the earliest example of a democratic society, where every citizen was a member of the Assembly and had a vote, ancient Greek society excluded women from politics. They were denied an education, had no legal status, and were barred from owning property or appearing as witnesses in courts. They were not allowed to participate in the Olympics and other games. Married at an early age, women were confined to the home and expected to manage the household; occupying themselves with cooking, spinning, and weaving. Jones points out that even their tombstones did not have their names on them; only their husband’s (95). The general belief was that a woman’s main purpose in life was to give birth to and rear children. This belief was so firmly entrenched that even Hippocrates, considered the Father of Medicine, believed that women who did not become mothers were prone to various illnesses (61). It is still a matter of debate that women were allowed to watch plays during the City Dionysia, though they were represented on the stage. The novelist Virginia Woolf has noted this paradox and, speaking about the tragic heroines on stage, says; A very queer, composite being thus emerges. Imaginatively, she is of the highest importance; practically she is completely insignificant. She pervades poetry from cover to cover; she is all but absent from history. She dominates the lives of kings and conquerors in fiction; in fact she was the slave of any boy whose parents fixed a ring upon her finger. Some of the most inspired words, some of the most profound thoughts in literature fall from her lips; in real life she could hardly read, could scarcely spell, and was the property of her husband (10). Though Aristophanes’ play has a strong woman at its centre, much of the comedy in Lysistrata is based on stereotypes about women as slaves to their passions. When Lysistrata proposes a sex strike, Lampito is the only one who supports her without reluctance. Lysistrata comments ironically; LYSISTRATA: I didn’t realize that we women were a total lot of nymphos. The tragic poets were right about us after all: shag, calve and dispose of, that’s the way we live (146). It should be noted that it is, perhaps, distrust of her own sex that makes Lysistrata change her original plan. Though all the women swear to go on a sex strike in the Prologue, they end 148 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English up in the Acropolis, away from their homes and temptation. Once the women are inside, many of them attempt to escape by making excuses, even though only five days have elapsed since they entered the Acropolis. They come across as unable to manage their sexual urges. Lysistrata has to stop them by coming up with a story about an oracle. Lysistrata has the courage to act on her convictions. She summons women from the warring city states into a public space and with immense daring, captures the Acropolis, which is the stronghold of the state treasury. It is under her leadership that the women succeed in their mission to force the men to make peace. At the same time, it is significant that the women have to resort to using sex as a weapon to get their message across – not through intellectual debate or political solutions. Many critics have pointed to the historical anomaly in this strategy. The underlying assumption is that marital sex was the only kind available to Greek men. However, it is a well-documented fact that it was the norm for married men to have extramarital sex with mistresses, concubines, and female slaves. Myrrhine raises the possibility of the husbands forcing themselves on their wives but Lysistrata dismisses it with the suggestion: “make yourselves frigid” (146). When Cinesias comes looking for his wife Myrrhine, there is a long-drawn scene, where he ends up being denied the pleasure of sex with her. More frustrated than ever, he says: CINESIAS: O what, tell me what, is there for me to do? And, robbed of her beauty, who’s there for me to screw? Philostratus, I need you, do come and help me quick: Could I please hire a nurse for my poor orphan prick? (179) Philostratus was a well-known pimp of the time and the fact that Cinesias calls out to him is clear enough indication of the prevailing practices. The misogynist underpinnings of the play are unmistakable. This is glaringly obvious in the scene where Lysistrata calls out Reconciliation. To the modern mind, trained to catch the slightest whiff of sexism, it is distressing to watch the Athenian and Spartan delegates lay claim to territories, using her body as a metaphorical map. Even the most comic of intentions cannot reconcile us to the disturbing implications here. But then we need to repeatedly recall that this play was written 2500 years ago and viewing it from a modern lens is not appropriate. From a historical context, Lysistrata is a play, written by a man, performed by men for what was, in most likelihood, an all-male audience. A large part of the comedy is sexual in 149 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature nature and hinges on the fantastical belief that a sex strike can be an effective political tool. Moreover, a large part of the humour is directed at the women. To sum up, read this quote by Zuckerberg; “Somehow, the character of Lysistrata has transcended her misogynist Aristophanic roots to become an iconic yet flawed exemplar of feminist activism (n.p.)” Lysistrata appears as an independent woman in the play. Though she understands the power women wield over men as far as sex is concerned, she never mentions a husband or children of her own. In a society where women had a subordinate status, Lysistrata emerges as a vocal representative of Athenian women. She knows how their voices are silenced at home: though they disapprove of many political decisions taken in the Assembly, they are not allowed to speak out. Lysistrata is extremely intelligent and has all the qualities that define a good leader. Through her appeal to the women, she is successful in persuading them to go on a sex strike. Her skill in planning and implementing the strategy to capture the Acropolis is admirable; she knows that control of the state treasury will give them leverage. Her understanding of state matters is highlighted especially in the long exchange with the Magistrate. Recall how she counters each point of his with wise words. Though she uses a metaphor from the domestic domain, Lysistrata stresses the importance of making efforts to establish peace between warring and rival city states, through diplomatic efforts. The ultimate aim of governance should be the welfare of the people. Though her methods may not seem realistic or plausible, Lysistrata understands the power of sex as a driving force. Especially clever is her strategy to bring out a naked young slave girl, naming her ‘Reconciliation’ and using her to keep both the Athenian and Spartan delegates suitably distracted during the negotiations for peace. She is confident, decisive, and a true leader. It is not surprising that she is considered an icon by feminists across the globe. There are numerous instances, from all over the world, of women going on similar sex strikes and being hailed as modern day Lysistratas by social media. Lysistrata is much more than the woman who instigates the Athenian womenfolk to go on a sex strike. She has all the qualities of a good warrior and statesperson. Her main objective, as discussed in a previous section, is to end the war between Athens and Sparta. Aristophanes identifies her with Athena, protectress of the city and goddess of war and wisdom. Towards the end of the play, Lysistrata’s appearance with Athena’s aegis puts the stamp of divine approval on her actions. 8. LYSISTRATA 150 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English Greek comedy was physical in nature and Lysistrata provides numerous occasions for such humour. Confrontations between the old men and old women of the two choruses are a parody of actual battle. The old men, lugging logs of wood and being drenched in water; the Magistrate being decked in feminine garb; the policemen being beaten up by the women; and the Spartan and Athenian delegates moving around the stage, trying to hide their erections: all these add a farcical element to the play. The play, to a great extent, depends on bawdy language, double entendres, and puns - mostly sexual in nature – for its humour. There is a protracted scene between Myrrhine and her husband Cinesias, which provides much of the sex comedy. The costumes worn by many of the characters in Ancient Greek Comedy would also have elicited laughter: distorted features on the comic masks, short tunics with padded backs and bellies, and fake leather phalluses visible. In Greek comedy, fools usually sported large, false genitals - considered a sign of stupidity. On stage, female nudity would have been depicted through body suits worn by the male actors; more hilarious than offensive. In addition, there is the suggestive visual metaphor in the stage set, with the women guarding the gate to the Acropolis and the men, unsuccessfully, trying to penetrate it with logs of wood. It becomes symbolic of the sex strike at the centre of the play. Bordering on the obscene and discomfiting for a modern audience, such scenes would have been enjoyed by the Greeks. Before dismissing the play as being vulgar and crass we must appreciate the fact that the cultural norms in ancient Greece were very different from ours. It was a society where men participated nude in athletic competitions and heroes, gods, and athletes were depicted completely or partially nude in visual art; especially sculptures and friezes. One of Dionysus’ symbols was a phallus – signifying fertility and divine male protection of the community. In fact, during religious processions, a phallus-bearer would carry a large three-dimensional model of a phallus on a pole. Outside homes and in many public spaces, it was the custom to keep rectangular marble pillars known as herms, with the torso of either the god Hermes or Dionysus and a phallus emerging midway. Any evaluation of the comedy in Lysistrata should be made, keeping these cultural and theatrical practices in mind. What is shockingly obscene for us may not have been so for Aristophanes’ audiences. But, in spite of the overtly sexual content, Lysistrata manages to get 9. LYSISTRATA AS COMIC THEATRE 151 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature its political message across. The play presents us with a strong female protagonist who takes a stand against war in her country. Questions for Discussion i) Would you agree that Lysistrata is an ‘anti-war’ play? ii) Describe Lysistrata as a leader of the Greek women. iii) Write a detailed account of Aristophanes’ treatment of the theme of gender in the play. iv) Describe some of the comic elements in the play. v) Write an essay on the role of the two choruses in Lysistrata.
ANTIGONE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Aristotle’s considered tragedy as, “...an imitation of an action that is serious and also as having magnitude complete in itself. In language, with pleasurable accessories, each kind brought in separately in the parts of the work, in a dramatic not in a narrative form; with incidents arousing pity and fear, wherewith to accomplish its catharsis of such emotions ......... some portions are worked out with verse only, and others in turn with song” Some knowledge of Aristotle’s Poetics, is a good introduction to the world of Greek tragedy. According to Aristotle, Tragedy is elevated and grand involving emotions of pity and fear. It looks upon the world as a place where, despite an element of chance or fate, there is moral order and not chaos. Thus tragedy proceeds on the basis of human dignity and human worth. It concerns itself with human values and accepts that man has a free will and that he is responsible for his action. This free choice of the course of action reveals his character, but tragedy acknowledges the existence of an all powerful superhuman factor in the universe. Antigone was written long before Aristotle wrote his Poetics. Sophocles provided Aristotle with his “norm and standard of excellence”. Aristotle’s thesis applies to Greek tragedy in general. As we study Sophocles, we shall see that this great tragic poet presents in his work, the constant interaction between man working out his destiny through a free choice and the divine power with its everlasting laws. Sophocles asserts primarily the dignity and worth of man, that remain undiminished, though he may suffer the worst of calamity in his struggle against forces governing his life, which nevertheless he has to withstand. Antigone as a tragedy has certain qualities that are typically Sophoclean and attains an excellence in the lyrical quality of its odes which is unmatched. Before taking up the detailed study of Antigone, you should know something about the ‘Dramatic Unities’, reference to which you may come across often in critical books and essays on tragedy. 2.1 The Dramatic Unities “Unity of Action” is essential for a tragedy according to Aristotle. The tragedy manifests itself as a whole, with its parts organically related. “Within the single and complete action which constitutes the unity of a tragedy the successive incidents are connected together by an inward and causal bond by the law of necessary and probable sequence on which Aristotle is 2. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 94 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English never tired of insisting”. By a “whole”, Aristotle implied that the tragic action should have a beginning, a middle and an end. Professor Butcher, in his commentary on Poetics explains that “A play must begin at some definite point and at some definite point it must end”. It is for the poet to see that the action is complete in itself and that neither the beginning nor the end is arbitrarily chosen, within the dramatic action a strict sequence of cause and effect is prescribed. But the causal chain must not be indefinitely extended outwards. The “middle” unlike the ‘beginning’, stands in causal relation to what goes before, and unlike the “end” is causally connected with what follows. The purpose of the definitions is to exclude “beginnings” which require something to prod them further, ‘endings’ which do not conclude the action, and “middles” which stand alone, unconnected either with the beginning or the end. “Unity”, Aristotle would say, is manifested mainly in two ways. First, in the causal connection that binds together the several parts of a play; The thoughts, the emotions, the decisions of the will, the external events being inextricably interwoven. Secondly in the fact that the whole series of events, with all the moral forces that are brought into collision are directed to a single end. The action as it advances, converges on a definite point. The end is linked to the beginning with inevitable certainty and in the end we discern the meaning of the whole. In this powerful and concentrated impression lies the supreme test of unity. (Poetics: Page 284-285) Unity of Action – is the only dramatic unity laid down by Aristotle. Regarding the Unity of Time - that the action should confine itself to a single revolution of the sun, no strict rule was given. Unity of place, has nowhere been hinted at in poetics. This was only a stage practice. A change of place was seldom demanded by the simple structure of Greek tragedy. The presence of the chorus also necessitated unity of place and time. The unity of action is the most important law laid down by Aristotle. This law is essential for the creation of excellence in a work of art to which all tragedies aspire.1 2.2 Sophocles One of the greatest tragic dramatists of antiquity Sophocles was born at Colonus near Athens. The exact year of his birth is not certain. Probably it was 496 B.C. or 497 B.C. He was a boy when Persians were defeated at Salamis. Sophocles, at the time, led the chorus, in singing the song of victory and thanksgiving. He belonged to a well-to-do family and received good 1 For a more detailed knowledge of the “unities” refer to Aristotle’s Poetics 95 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature education. As a boy he won prizes in wrestling and music. In his early years, he was influenced greatly by Aeschylus, a much older man and the greatest dramatist of the time. Sophocles was a prolific writer. But only seven tragedies written by him are extant. His plays were adjudged the best during many of the performances in the theatre. He won his first victory in the theatre in 468 B.C. He was a popular dramatist and was loved and honoured universally. He was elected to hold a number of high public offices. He was a friend of the historian Herodotus. Some passages in his plays have their source in the writings of the historian. Sophocles lived a happy and fruitful life and lived up to the ripe old age of ninety one. After his death in the autumn of 406 B.C., he was honoured as a hero and was made a part of the religious life of Athens. Offerings were made each year in honour of his departed soul. He was buried in his ancestral tomb near Athens. The figure of a siren is mounted his tomb. 2.3 The Origin of the Greek Tragedy The Greek tragedy originated in the cult of Dionysus. In the theatre, a large stone seat in the front row was reserved for the priest of Dionysus. The content of the tragedy was heroic legend. This content along with the dithyrambic2 chorus comprised the origin of the Greek tragedy. The ancient Greek Theatre was a religious institution under the direction of the state. The myth provided the main source of inspiration to the tragic poets. They remodelled it to suit their individual vision of the tragic situation. The legends were the common property of the Greek people, part of their life and within their comprehension, so that they accepted as authentic these tragic figures of universal validity created by the great masters. The most famous of the Greek tragic dramatists, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, wrote during the fifth century B.C. The tragedies written by them, are regarded as great plays of all time. These plays are not naturalistic but highly conventional and stylized. The heroic characters are presented as larger than life. We see in these plays the glory of man’s greatness as well as the inherent weakness of man and the sovereignty of the divine will. Some of the conventions 2 (Wild emotional choric hymn in honour of Dionysus.) Check Your Progress 1 1. What is Tragedy and how did Aristotle arrive at his formulations? 2. What are the dramatic unities? 96 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English of the Greek Theatre were the use of stilted shoes, heroic costumes, and the masks. All these added to the required atmosphere; grandeur to the scene and stature to the characters. 2.4 The Mask The Mask has been used in the Greek drama from the very beginning. The mask brought about the transformation necessary to dramatic roles. Masks were used from primitive times in the cult of gods and goddesses such as Artemis, Demeter and Dionysus. The mask of Dionysus, hanging on a pole was an object of worship, and he was called “The God of Mask’. Satyrs, his most prominent worshippers were masked and “satyr masks were brought to his shrine as offerings. The use of masks was deeply rooted in the domain of cult” (Lesky, P.29). The plays were presented as part of the dramatic and religious festival, called Dionysia, as it was held in Athens every year in honour of Dionysus. The presentation of the plays thus was a great religious and social event. The plays were selected for a dramatic contest and prizes were awarded in order of merit. The audience comprised of thousands in number. The performance took place in daylight. Members of the audience were aware of the dramatic story and had knowledge of the various dramatic conventions. They could identify various characters with the help of the costume and the mask they would be wearing. The tiny cast could be doubled with the use of masks and men could take women’s parts. The actor’s voice could be amplified though a megaphone built into the masks. All these did not take away from the freedom of imagination, the hallmark of the artist. The dramatist remodelled the myth structure to suit the requirement of his dramatic purpose. Sometimes the obscurity of the myth as in the case of ‘Antigone’, provided the artist with considerable opportunity to interpret the myth in an original way. Antigone is the first of the Theban plays written by Sophocles, over a wide interval of years. The three plays written within the broad framework of the legend concerning the Royal House of Thebes are, Antigone, Oedipus the King, and Oedipus at Colonus, in that order. So they do not form a ‘trilogy’ and have no unity to them. Antigone was produced in 441 B.C. Its success led to the election of Sophocles as a general, and he became a prominent figure in Athenian public life. He commanded with Pericles (famous statesman and builder of Athenian democracy) the expedition against Samos in 440 B.C. Athens at the time, was at the height of her glory as the leader of the cultural, political and artistic life of Greece. In Antigone, though there is no contemporary allusion or political propaganda. Sophocles, showed his awareness of the pitfalls of success and brought into focus the dangers besetting man through pride and arrogance. The play is a rich work of art. The major issues are fused 97 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature with elements such as the lyricism of the choral odes, the political import of the scene between Haemon and Creon and a the comic touch is provided by the way the guard is treated. The legend tells us of the king of Thebes, Laius, who was warned by the Delphic oracle that his infant son, would grow up to kill his father and marry his mother. Terrible predictions– to avoid which Laius ordered the child’s feet to be pierced and bound together, the helpless child was then given to a palace servant to be killed. Out of pity, the servant abandoned the child on the mountain. A shepherd took him to the king of Corinth, Polybus, to be brought up as his son. The child was named Oedipus (Swollen-foot). As he grew to manhood; he heard the oracle declaring that he would kill his father. In order to avoid this terrible calamity Oedipus resolved never to see his ‘father’ Polybus again and left Corinth. In his wanderings, he met an old man with some attendants on a narrow road. There was a fight on the right of passage. The old man and all his companions except one were killed by Oedipus. The first part of the oracle was fulfilled. The old man was no other than King Laius of Thebes. As Oedipus approached Thebes, he came to know of the monster sphinx, threatening severe danger to the people of Thebes. The Sphinx put a riddle to every passer by near the gates of Thebes, and if he failed to solve the riddle he would be devoured by her. Nobody could answer the riddle and innumerable people were killed. Oedipus went to answer the riddle and he succeeded. What creature’, the Sphinx asked, “what creature goes on four feet in the morning, on two at noon, and on three in the evening? “Man”, answered Oedipus. “In childhood, he crawls on all fours, walks erect in manhood and in old age takes the help of a stick”. On receiving the right answer the Sphinx killed herself. The Thebans expressed their gratitude by offering the kingship of Thebes to Oedipus. And he married the widowed queen. After some time of the birth of two sons and two daughters to Oedipus and his queen Jocasta, Thebes was visited by a severe plague. People were dying and the city was threatened by famine. Oedipus wanted to end the sufferings of his people. Jocasta’s brother Creon was sent to consult the Delphic Oracle for a remedy to this desperate situation. Creon returned, with Apollo’s message, that the murderer of king Laius must be punished and only then the sufferings of the Thebans would come to an end, Oedipus firmly resolved to seek out the guilty and punish him. 3. THE LEGEND 98 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English Teiresias, the blind prophet, was sent for, and he revealed reluctantly that Oedipus himself was the murderer, Oedipus ordered him out of sight; he was angry and refused to believe his words. But the secret of his birth was revealed through unimpeachable sources. It could not be doubted that Oedipus, the son of Laius had killed him, though, unaware of his being Laius’ son. The monstrosity of the situation made Jocasta kill herself. Oedipus blinded himself and Creon became the regent on Oedipus’ giving up the kingship. After sometime Creon urged the banishment of Oedipus from Thebes. Polyneices and Eteocles, Oedipus’s two sons also consented to this. His two daughters however were loyal to him and stood by him in his misfortune. Antigone went with him in his exile and Ismene stayed back to take care of his interest, in Thebes. The two unworthy sons of Oedipus fought between themselves for the throne. Eteocles succeeded and Polyneices fled to Argos.He collected an army to march against Thebes. In the ensuing battle Eteocles and Polyneices killed each other, the former defending and the latter attacking Thebes. Creon became the king of Thebes. He ordered that Eteocles be buried with full honours and all the rites as the defender of the city. Polyneices’ dead body was not to be buried, but left to dogs and vultures to feast upon. Creon decreed that anybody daring to disobey and giving burial to the dead would be stoned to death. After the death of Oedipus, Antigone and Ismene had come to stay at Thebes. Antigone resolved to bury Polyneices in defiance of Creon’s orders. Ismene felt sorry but she was scared. So Antigone took it upon herself this sacred duty of giving a proper burial to her brother. She fulfilled what she rightly thought were religious and family obligations. She was caught but she told Creon that she had defied his law, to obey what God has laid down. Creon got furious and punished her with death. This is the legend of Oedipus and his, brave loyal daughter Antigone. The Part of the legend regarding Antigone is quite obscure.3 Sophocles Antigone has been interpreted in various ways by various authors. It is necessary to understand the text thoroughly on one’s own, before taking up the various interpretations, sometimes highly contradictory. Our approach is textual and objective. We shall begin therefore by closely following the text of the play Antigone and see what happens in the play. 3 In Aeschylus’ tragedy – “Seven against Thebes”, burial of Polyncices has been denied by a decree of the Theban leaders on the ground that he had attacked his native city. There also, Antigone insists on giving due rites of burial to the body of Polyneices. 99 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature The play opens with Antigone and Ismene talking. We are at once introduced to the central conflict between the claim of the blood and claims of the State, between religious law and secular law. Antigone seeks help from Ismene in the task of burying his dead brother Polyneices. Ismene pleads inability in view of Creon’s order which proclaimed death penalty for anyone burying the dead body of Polyneices. She cautions her sister to be at least secretive. But Antigone contemptuously dismisses. Ismene; resolving to carry out her sacred mission alone. This scene between the sisters is over before the entry of the chorus of Theban elders and their song of thanksgiving. Creon, the king, enters and declares that he has ordered the burial of Eteocles with all the rites observed. As he was the defender of the city, he is honoured even in death. As for Polyneices, who came to conquer; his body would be given to dogs and birds to prey upon. His body is denied burial as he was the enemy of Thebes. Anybody daring to bury him would be punished with death. Hardly had Creon finished his statement, when a sentry enters. He reluctantly breaks the news that the dead body of Polyneices has been buried mysteriously, being covered with a layer of earth. The watchmen could not make out how it came to be buried. There was no indication of a tool being used, no trace of any animal, mauling the body. It seemed to be the work of some pious passer by. The spontaneous response of the chorus that it is in act of divine interference is dismissed contemptuously by Creon. Gods would not look kindly upon Polyneices, who would surely have burnt down their temples, in case he could conquer the city. There must be some disgruntled men in the city who have bribed their stooges to bury the dead body. He threatens the sentry, suspected as an accomplice, that if he cannot bring the guilty, he will be severely punished. The sentry, resolves, never to appear again and escapes. The scene is left to the chorus singing the ode to the greatness of man, and of human achievement, reminding at the end of the ode the danger of being lured into sin and that the impious man is to be forsaken. The sentry re-enters with Antigone, charging her with the burial of the dead body of Polyneices. As Creon enters, the sentry graphically describes how Antigone was caught in the act of ritually burying the body a second time after the guards had swept off the dust with which it was buried the first time. Then they saw Antigone, angry at the sight of the bare body, burying it a second time. 4. SUMMARY OF THE PLAY 100 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English The guard is sorry for Antigone, though he is happy with his own exoneration. On being questioned, Antigone accepts her responsibility and defies Creon. The eternal laws of heaven enjoin the proper burial of the dead. No man-made law can claim superiority over these divine laws. After all death would come to her and she would willingly be a martyr to the sacred cause of burying her brother’s body. She would be committing a sin, if she left her dead brother unburied, out of fear. The chorus comments on her fierce temper and compares it with that of her father. Creon is very angry and says that Ismene is also involved in the crime. He decides to punish the sisters and break the stubborn pride of Antigone, who is nothing more than a slave, according to Creon. Antigone asserts her sacred right to do her duty by her dead brother, and says that the people of Thebes admire her for having done the right thing. She denies Creon’s contention that in: honouring one brother who had come attacking Thebes, she has dishonoured the other, who fell defending the city. She says that Death demands the same rites for all and Death must have reconciled the brothers, who were enemies in life. In any case she loved both and never shared their hatred. As Ismene enters, she is charged with a part in the crime, which she acknowledges; Antigone sternly turns down her claim. She is bitter in her denunciation of Ismene, who had refused to bury the dead body of their brother. Ismene wants to share the fate of Antigone and questions Creon if her sister would be put to death, as she is the bride-to be of Haemon, Creon’s son. Creon rules out the marriage between Antigone and Haemon. The chorus in its third Ode sings of the subsequent evils that overtake a house, once it is shaken by a disaster. The Almighty Zeus rules supreme always. A successful man would sooner or later mistakenly think of evil as good and land himself into disaster. At the end of the Ode, Creon’s son Haemon enters. To Creon’s question whether he has come to his father in anger, as he has ordered the death of Antigone, Haemon answers humbly declaring himself to be his father’s loyal son. Creon lectures him to disown Antigone. Her disobedience must be punished, otherwise it will set a bad example. Her crime is more to be condemned, as that done by a woman. A woman cannot be allowed to defeat a man. Haemon also has a lot to tell his father, he tells him that the common man is full of admiration for the pious act of courage performed by Antigone. People are afraid to speak out against the king, but they are murmuring that Antigone has been unjustly condemned for an act which should win her a crown of gold. He cautions his father against thinking that he alone is wise and right. Even if he is wise, there is always something more to learn and he 101 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature must change himself to meet the prevailing conditions. An angry exchange takes place between father and son. Creon brands Antigone as a criminal–Haemon cites the opinion of the people, who do not regard her as such. Creon is the master of the city and he will rule according to his own will. Haemon says it cannot be done in civilized society and he opposes his father, as he is being unjust. He says in defending Antigone, he is defending what is right and sacred. Mad with rage, Creon commands Antigone to be killed before the eyes of Haemon. The latter leaves the scene refusing to be a witness to this act of madness on his father’s part, and telling him that he would never see him again. Creon reiterates his resolve to punish Anitgone. She is to be imprisoned alive in a cave, never to see the light of day again. The fourth ode is then sung by the chorus to the invincible power of Love. Antigone enters on her way to the tomb. She speaks sadly of the cruel death awaiting her. She-laments the absence of any tangible sign of sympathy from her fellow creatures. The comments of the chorus is of cold comfort to her. For burying her brother’s dead body she has only obeyed the sacred laws, otherwise she would have been guilty of transgression. Yet Creon has condemned her to a living death. She invokes a curse, on those who have thoughtlessly punished her. She appeals to the city of Thebes, her gods and princes to witness how unjustly she is being treated for keeping a holy law. Antigone is taken away by guards as instructed by Creon. The chorus in its fifth ode refers to persons, suffering miserably, persons guilty as well as innocent. The chorus concludes that nobody is secure against sate. The blind prophet Teiresias enters with dire warnings to Creon. He has forbidden the burial of the dead and consequently altars and hearths of Thebes have been polluted by dogs and birds that have been feeding upon the dead body of Polyneices. Signs of divine displeasure arc evident. No sire will burn offerings to the gods, prayers are not accepted by heaven. Teiresias clearly tells Creon that he has to mend his ways. To strike and injure the dead is not valour. It is foolish to stand against divine laws. It will harm Creon himself. The answer of Creon is not only arrogant but blasphemous as well. He does not hesitate to declare that even if Zeus’ own eagles feast on the dead body and carry the pollution to his seat, Creon would not, out of fear for that desecration, allow the body of Polyneices to be buried. He charges Teiresias, with having received money and being motivated by considerations of gain4 he further provokes Teiresias by an angry exchange of 4 In classical Greece, it was not an unusual charge against the prophets. Edith Hamilton writes of Herodotus in her book “The Great Age of Greek Literature” “Quite as characteristic is his matter-of-fact statement, 102 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English dialogue. Finally Teiresias reveals all the frightening secrets, spelling disaster for Creon and those dear to him. Teiresias proclaims–that he has robbed the gods of the lower world of their right. He has denied burial to the dead and unjustly put a living person in a tomb. For this profanation of the sacred laws, he will have to pay with the life of a child of his own. The avenging furies are sure to make Creon miserable. The other cities arc also cursing him, whose sons arc lying unburied due to Creon’s orders, whose hearths and altars are being polluted by the birds and animals, seeding upon the dead body. Teiresias leaves, leaving behind frightened Creon. The chorus advises him to reverse his orders and listen to Teiresias. His prophecy has never failed. So Creon proceeds to release Antigone and give a proper burial to the dead body of Polyneices. Creon hastens to release Antigone, he yields out of fear and thinks it is wisest to observe the established laws. In the sixth ode Dionysus is invoked earnestly to deliver the city of Thebes, the chosen home of the God, from the evils that threaten it.” The invocation is hardly over, when the Messenger enters with news of disaster–death of Haemon by his own hand. Haemon’s mother Eurydice enters to hear the tragic account of her son’s death. Creon first went with his men to give a holy burial of what remained of the body of Polyneicess. They washed and burned it, after offering prayers to the gods of the underworld, and raised a mound over the ashes. Next they proceeded to the cave where Antigone was imprisoned. They hear a human cry and passing through the passage where the stones were thrown apart, they could see the body of Antigone hanging by the neck with a rope made of her own dress. Haemon stood, with his arms around her body, mourning his lost bride, and his father’s cruelty. As Creon implored him to come out, he looked at him angrily, spat in his face and struck at him with his sword. As Creon leaps out Haemon drove the sword deep into his own body, and embraced the dead girl with sailing arms. They both lay side by side, his life-blood colouring her pale checks. The blood-wedding showing what calamity a man’s perversity can bring. that the priestess at Delphi, had been more than once bribed to give a favourable oracle to one side in a dispute. Herodotus had great respect for the Delphic oracle but to his mind that was no reason to suppress a charge which he had investigated and believed to be true. 103 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature The queen turns and goes into the palace, scarcely before the messengers’ account is over. The chorus and the Messenger make anxious comments on the unnatural silence of the queen, the Messenger goes inside to find out what she is after. Creon comes in with the dead body of his son, lamenting his own folly, mourning his dead son. The chorus appropriately reminds him that his recognition of his mistaken judgement is too late. The Messenger comes to announce that Creon’s wife has killed herself mourning her two dead sons and cursing Creon, responsible for her sons’ death. ELE Creon is crushed and learns his lesson that his blindness of judgement, failure to distinguish between right and wrong brought this deadly revenge from gods, he had defied. His only hope now is in death, which will end his misery. As Creon leaves the scene, a broken man, the chorus speaks of happiness, that comes only through piety and wisdom. Arrogance and pride are punished till the proud learns wisdom in humility. L 1-100 The Prologue comprises of the dialogue between two sisters Antigone and Ismene. It has definitely conspiratorial air, with a private and personal note. Antigone’s attitude of outrage and defiance contrasts with the meekness and resignation of Ismene. The full light of publicity in which the rest of the action is played out contrasts with this scene, played out, away from the glare of public vision. Antigone is furious to know that Creon has forbidden the burial of her dead brother Polyneices. She has decided to bury him with all the sacred rites. When Ismene tells her that it is an impossible task, she tells her that she will make an honest effort, and then stop, if she is made to. She knows that she is putting herself into danger for this pure crime. But she is not afraid of death, rather she is afraid of not being able to fulfill her obligations to the dead and the divine. L 101-159 In the first ode, the Chorus sings joyfully of the deliverance of the city. It is a song of thanks giving calling for night long celebrations in honour of Dionysus. This is in contrast with the earlier scene between Antigone and Ismene. The sisters are tense, sad and Antigone full of resentment at the way her dead brother is treated, In the Choral ode Polyncices is the hated enemy and ironically the chorus sings of dangers past. The chorus like any other ordinary 5. CRITICAL COMMENTS WITH DETAILED SUMMARY 104 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English dramatic character cannot foresee the crisis to which Creon leads the state through his disregard of the eternally valid laws of burial of the dead and observance of the sacred rites by the blood relations of the deceased. L 160-220 Creon enters with his proclamation forbidding the burial of Polyneices on pain of death. He justifies himself by saying that Polyneices had come to conquer the city. So he deserves his dishonour. The ruler must be bold and patriotic Creon says, and that he would put his city’s safety and security above everything and everybody. The Chorus accepts unquestioningly, the king’s orders. L 221-329 Scarcely had Creon finished talking when the guard comes in with the news of the body having been buried by some unknown person. He says, no trace of the person or of any tool having been used, was visible. As though, someone had covered it with dust to avoid a curse. The watchmen were terrified. It fell to the lot of the guard to bring the news to Creon. The immediate response of the Chorus leader is that Polyncices has been buried through divine agency. Creon explodes with anger. The guard is threatened and the suggestion of divine interference is dismissed with contempt by Creon. He can only think of money and political discontent as the motive. The guard-a common man of average intelligence feels the folly of such rash judgement. Anyway he is glad to get away, and decides never to show his face again.5 L 330-369 The second ode, sung by the Chorus, glorifies Man. Man has conquered the waves, and ploughs the land. He has tamed the wild beasts, is able to entrap birds and catch fish from the deep sea. He has developed speech, learnt to build cities and shelter for himself, and he knows treatment for sickness. Death alone can conquer him. If Man observes the secular laws and follows the divine laws, then only his life is full of honour, and his city secure. But the Chorus is unaware that the two laws are not in harmony in Thebes ruled by Creon, and the city is threatened by Creon himself, through his defiance of the divine laws. L 370-570 The guard enters with Antigone. Creon is almost bewildered to learn that his own niece has challenged him in burying the body. The guard, happy at his own escape, is yet sorry for 5 The line references are from Sophocles, Three Tragedies translated by H D F Kitto. 105 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature Antigone. He is frank enough to admit though, that he values his own life above everything else. He gives a clear picture of the burial of Polyneices by Antigone. It is brought out vividly how Antigone poured the funeral libation and was caught in the act of burying the body. On being asked by Creon, Antigone calmly acknowledges her responsibility. Bravely facing Creon, She tells him that she would never obey a mortal, howsoever great, if that makes her disregard a divine rule. She does not fear death, but she is afraid of damnation, which she would certainly have incurred, if she had allowed her brother’s body to lie unburied. She does not expect any mercy, nor is she prepared to compromise. She thinks that her two brothers, mortal enemies in life, might have got reconciled in death. In any case she loved them both and would not share their hatred. Eteocles would not feel dishonoured if Polyneices was given the same funeral rites. She asserts her right to bury her brother and is sure that it has brought her glory. If people were not afraid of the king they would openly say so. Creon condemns her to death. He suspects Ismene also. The latter is brought on the scene, almost distraught with sorrow. She offers to share Antigone’s guilt, which is firmly rejected by her. Ismene finds life empty of all meaning, if her sister is taken away from her. Ismene says that Creon cannot be so cruel with Antigone, his son’s betrothed. Creon is determined to punish Antigone. The two are matched in their stubbornness. This scene structurally links the action with the prologue and prepares for the next development – Haemon’s encounter with his father. L 571-620 In the third ode, the Chorus speaks of the pitfalls of success. They sing of the twisted judgement of the man about to be ruined by God. To him evil seem good, and he faces disaster. Again the Choric song ironically foreshadows the fate of Creon. L 620-767 Haemon comes with humble requests and high hopes, assuring his father of his obedience and loyalty to him. Creon tells him of the virtues of obedience and loyalty to the parents. He should not care for a woman, who has rejected his father’s authority. He speaks highly of the merits of abiding by the law and of discipline. Creon is unaware of his own disobedience of the sacred laws of god, that is going to bring about his own ruin. The Chorus once again approves of the king’s stand. Haemon humbly tells him of the prevailing opinion in the city. There is a hushed murmur of approval of the courage of Antigone. She has performed an act of devotion according to holy rites. She has carried out her duty towards her slain brother. For that she 106 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English does not deserve punishment, but praise. Haemon reminds Creon of the need to be flexible. No man is infallible, and one should be aware that one may go wrong in judgement, and so others must be consulted. This is true of the whole universe. The trees that bend are saved from the torrents. If the sail of a ship is not shortened during a storm, then it will sink. To all this Creon reacts with anger and impatience. An angry exchange of words between father and son ends with Haemon’s exit in anger, telling Creon that he is nothing more than an autocrat. In answer to Creon’s charge that he is only supporting Antigone, being her play thing, Haemon asserts that he is defending justice and divine laws. Creon orders that Antigone should be killed at once. She would be imprisoned alive in a cave. Then only she would realise, how stupid and wicked it is to respect the dead. L 768-790 The Chorus sings of the invincible power of love. Love holds power over nature and the whole universe. And the Chorus feels sorry for Antigone, when she is brought out on her last journey to her death. The Chorus is personally sympathetic to Antigone unlike Creon, but they do not approve of her action unlike the average citizen of Thebes. L 790-916 Antigone is sorry to take her last farewell and meet a living death. We look upon her as a creature of flesh and blood, as she mourns her unfulfilled womanhood. She speaks of Niobe6 , forever shedding tears for her slain children, herself being turned to stone. The Chorus offers consolation to Antigone, telling her that it is glorious for a mortal to share the fate of Niobe, born of the gods. Antigone’s glory will long outlive her, she is the only living one to go to the home of the dead, unaffected by wasting disease or violent injury. To Antigone’s passionate rejection of this cold comfort, the chorus spiritedly replies that she has to pay for her defiance and she is liable for the sin inherited from her father and has to pay for it. The Chorus clearly denounces her for her disobedience and sell will though her loyalty to her brother is praised. Antigone laments the terrible fate, overcoming the house of Labdacus, the unintentional sin of her parents union and the evil marriage of her brother with the princess of Argos. His death has ruined Antigone. She is being dragged to death. Creon’s inhuman reply to all her lamentation is that, she should at once be taken away to be buried alive. 6 Niobe was the daughter of Tantalus, son of Zeus 107 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature Antigone speaks of her hope to be welcomed among the dead. She has done her duty by all her blood relations after their death. It is she who performed the last rites for her mother, father and now for Polyneices, her brother. For the last named, she is punished with death. Antigone says that she would not have dared to defy the king if it were her husband or her child who was so exposed as was the body of Polyncices. The husband dead, she could find another, and the child lost, another from him. But with the parents dead, there was no possibility of ever getting another brother. So she paid the supreme honour to her dead brother and Creon has punished her with death. Once again she laments that she cannot be married and have children, that her life is cut short in midstream. She has not committed any sin or defied any divine law. She curses her tormentors, that they should also suffer like her and she makes a final appeal to the men of Thebes to witness how wrongly she is treated by unholy men as she has tried to obey divine laws. L 917-950 In the fifth ode, the Chorus uses three separate myths. Nothing can stand against the working of fate. Danae, the daughter of king Acrisius of Argos, was imprisoned by his father. It was foretold that if Danae had a son he would kill Acrisius. To avert this, Danae was imprisoned in a tower. But Zeus came to her in the form of golden rain (Through bribing the watchman, according to modern interpretations). Danae had a son by him, Perseus by name, who eventually killed Acrisius, fulfilling the Oracle. Lycurgus, a king in Thrace, opposed the worship of Dionysus. He was turned mad and shut up in a cave. He died being torn to pieces by animals. Cleopatra’s father was Boreas, the North wind. She was imprisoned by her husband Phincus king of Salmydessus on the coast of the Black sea, as he wanted to marry Eidothea, a sister of Theban Cadmus. Eidothea, blinded Cleopatra’s two sons. Ideas of darkness, cruelty, violence and revenge permeate this ode, and give indirect expression to the feelings of outrage against Creon, who treats Antigone so cruelly. L 950-1055 Teiresias comes, with a note of friendly caution. He tells Creon of what he has foreseen, with his power of divining the future. As he sat on his ancient scat of augury7 he could hear birds screaming at each other and fighting. The offered sacrifice did not burn at the fire. He understood such omens, indicating pollution. The homes and hearths are polluted by dogs and birds feeding upon the unburied dead body of Polyneices. Teiresias clearly tells Creon that he 7 Augury – prophecy 108 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English is responsible for this and must make amends. It is foolish to be stubborn and it is no heroism to strike the fallen. Teiresias advises Creon to correct his erroneous ways. But Creon’s reaction is provocative. He accuses Teiresias of bribery. He blasphemes, speaking that even if the throne of Zeus himself is polluted by his own eagles, Creon would not change his decree for fear of that defilement. A hot exchange of words takes place between Creon and Teiresias. Creon charging Teiresias with greed for gold, and he charges Creon with love for shameful use of power. Teiresias pronounces terrible predictions against Creon and leaves in anger. He says that for the double sin of exposing the dead, and burying the living. Creon will be punished with the death of his own child. For recklessly depriving the gods of the lower world of their due, the avenging furies are pursuing Creon to make him pay a price. His house will very soon ring with lamentation and he is hated in cities polluted by birds and dogs, who have fed upon corpses, lying unburied according to Creon’s orders. L 1055-1149 Creon is frightened and prepared to compromise. The Chorus tells him that the prophecy of Teiresias is sure to be fulfilled and Creon must hasten to undo the damage his stubbornness has brought about. Creon quickly goes with his men to release Antigone from her rock cave. The Chorus leader asks him to go personally to release Antigone and bury the dead. The sixth ode is one of supplication. Dionysus is specially the god of Thebes, son of Semele, daughter of Cadmus of Thebes. Cadmus had sown the dragon’s teeth from which sprang the ancestors of Thebans. Dionysus, the son of Zeus is generous and he would put his healing touch to cure Thebes of the pollution which holds all her people in its grip. Hardly had the Chorus finished its song, when a messenger arrives – announcing death. He comes speaking of the insecurity of human fortune. Creon has lost his joy, and all his wealth and status cannot bring back his happiness. The Messenger has brought the news of Haemon’s death. Eurydice, Creon’s wife comes and wants to have the news, as she has already caught the word ‘death’, while coming to make an offering at the temple of Pallas.8 L 1150-1200 The Messenger describes the delayed burial of Polyneice’s body and the circumstances leading to Haemen’s death. The body half devoured by animals, was washed according to 8 Pallas Athene-In Greek mythology-the goddess who presides over the intellectual and moral side of human lise; also The Preserver of the State. 109 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature holy rituals and prayer was offered to Hecate9 and Pluto God of the lower world, begging them to be merciful. The poor remains of the body was burnt and a mound of soil built over his ashes. Then Creon proceeded to release Antigone from the stone cave where she was held. A cry of anguish was heard as they approached the unholy site. It was the voice of Haemon. Under the orders of Creon, the men ran to see, and they could see where some stones had already been removed, the body of Antigone was found hanging and Haemon lamenting her suicide. Creon went crying to him, entreating him to come away. At this Haemon looked at him in anger. Spat in his face, and missing his aim to strike Creon, with his sword, drove the sword into his own body. His blood reddened the white checks of the dead girl as he embraced her with his failing arms. In death Haemon and Antigone are united and the folly of Creon has brought the worst evil on himself and on his own. At the end of this speech, the chorus leader notes the silent disappearance of the queen. L 1201-1290 The messenger hopes that in her dignity, she would not display her sorrow in public, but has gone in to express her sorrow, but the chorus leader feels apprehensive at her strange silence and the Messenger goes in to find out. Creon enters with the dead body of Haemon. The Chorus comments that his own misdeeds are responsible for his ruin. Creon has at last recognised his own wrong judgement. He admits his own responsibility. The death of his son has been caused by his own rigid self-will. He has learnt his lesson the hard way. Divine anger has cruelly crushed all his joy. The Messenger comes in from the palace with the news of the self-destruction of the queen. In desperation, Creon speaks of the ruthlessness of death, and the news of the queen’s death has come as a fatal blow to one who is already dead. As the lifeless body is seen, Creon wonders in sorrow, what more suffering might be in store for him. The Messenger speaks of how Eurydice killed herself with a knife, cursing Creon as the killer of both her sons. 9 In Greek mythology Hecate is a deity of the lower world often described as the goddess of the cross-roads. She wanders about with the souls of the dead and dwells at places where two roads crossed, on tombs and near the blood of murdered persons. 110 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English Once again Creon acknowledges that it is his own folly, that has led to the death of his wife and son. He alone is guilty for their disastrous end. All he now looks forward to is the end of a life emptied of all joy. The Chorus leader reminds him that no man can escape his fate, he has to suffer. And so, long as one lives, one has to continue performing allotted duties. Creon humbly laments the great sorrow that has come upon him and wishes to be led away. He describes himself as a thoughtless man of wrong judgement, whose lack of wisdom has killed his wife and son. The last words of the Chorus voices the pronouncement of Sophocles on the truth of human experience. The most important element of happiness is balanced judgement and wisdom. Great pride is met with great punishment, till the proud man learns his lesson through suffering and becomes reverent to gods, acquiring humility. 5.1 Study Notes With Explanations L-106 Across the gleaming water of Dirke (Dirce): Dirke is a river near Thebes. Dirke or Dirce was a queen of Thebes, wife of Lyeus, who married her after divorcing his former wife Antiope. Antiope was treated cruelly by Dirke. Antiope’s sons took revenge by killing Lyeus and Dirke. Dirke was changed into a fountain. L-127 Sons of a dragon: “The Thebans are the offspring of a Dragon. This is a reference to the story of Cadmus. The founder of the city and the Dynasty. He, an immigrant from Pheonicia, was led by a cow to the spot divinely appointed to be the site of his city. There he was incommoded by a dragon, which he killed. Then on divine prompting, he sowed the teeth of the dragon and from them instantly sprang up a company of armed men, who became the ancestors of the Theban race” (Sophocles. Three Tragedies, translated by HDF Kitto, Page. 158) L-155 Theban Dionysus: Dionysus, son of Zeus and Semele, daughter of Cadmus of Thebes, Dionysus was also called Bacchus, the god’ of wine. As the Greek drama had grown out of the dithyramabic choruses at the festival of Dionysus, he was also regarded as The god of tragic art. 111 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature L-785 Invincible Aphrodite: The goddess of Love and Beauty. L-839 Labdacus: Father of Laius, grandfather of Oedipus. L-920-950 Fair Danae, who in Darkness was held... She went a Boread, swift as horses, over the lofty mountains”: Three separate myths are referred to here. Danae was the daughter of an Argive king Acrisius. He received a warning that, rather like the one that came to Laius, if his daughter had a son, that son would kill him. It was to avert this that he imprisoned Danae in a tower. But Zeus came to her in the form of golden rain (interpreted...to mean bribery of Danae’s gaoler) and she bore Perscus, the one who slew the gorgon and after many other adventures, and Acrisius, thus fulfilling the oracle. Lycurgus was a king in Thrace, the wild North, who opposed Dionysian worship. Dionysus drove him mad, and his people shut him up in a cave. He was torn to pieces by animals. Phincus’s two sons had as mother a certain Cleopatra, daughter of Borcas, the North wind. Cleopatra’s husband Phincus was king in Salmydessus, on the coast of the Black Sea, but he imprisoned her to marry Eidothea, sister of Theban Cadmus. She blinded the two sons of Cleopatra. L-844 Evil marriage: Adrastus the king of Argos got his daughter married to Polyneices. He then prepared to restore Polyneices to Thebes. Thus the war started against Thebes. In this war Polyneices lost his life. His brother was also killed by him. L-1254 Megareus: The reference to Megarcus or Menoeceus, is available in Euripides’ The Phoenissae, written 30 years later than Antigone. The Argive army besieged Thebes. Teiresias informs Creon that the city can survive only by the sacrifice of one of the ‘Sown men’, i.e. The direct descendants of the dragon’s teeth. There existed only two 'Sown men' other than Creon; Haemon and Menoeceus. Sophocles calls them Megareus. Creon must sacrifice one of them. Haemon cannot be sacrificed for he is married therefore Menoeceus is the only option. However, Creon refuses the suggestion. But Menoeceus nobly kills himself to save the city. 112 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English This is not the story referred to by Sophocles, but what exactly it was, we cannot tell.10 Another reference to Megareus is present in Aeschylus’s Seven Against Thebes. In the play, Megarcus, the son of Creon, departs, as soon as he is marked out by Eteocles, to guard the third gate of Thebes, against the invaders. Creon is not a character in this play. These are not the references made use of by Sophocles. What exactly is the story referred to by him is not clear. The play is named after Antigone, but whether rightly is a point of controversy. Antigone drops out well before the play is over. We hear nothing about her after her exit except how Haemon laments over her suicide and kills himself. Creon occupies the scene almost from the beginning till the end. His part is lengthier than that of Antigone. It is his tragedy that grows before our eyes and sustains dramatic interest till the end. 10 Material collected from HDF Kitto’s–Sophocles–Three Tragedies Check Your Progress 2 1. The first scene introduces us to two characters, who are they? What do you learn about the dramatic situation from their conversation? (L1-100) 2. Why does Creon proclaim two different edicts for the two brothers – killed by each other? (L-190-208) 3. When Antigone is brought before Creon, charged with the burial of the dead body of Polyneices, what reasons she gives to justify her action? (L447-500) 4. What is the significance of the choric lines that end the Third ode? (L 610- 616) 5. What aspects of Antigone’s character is revealed in her speech before she is finally taken to her doom? (L 866-900) 6. What does Teiresias say to frighten Creon to mend his ways? (L 1028- 1040). 6. THE TITLE AND THEME 113 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature Having said this, it still has to be maintained that Antigone is the more important character. The emphasis of the dramatic action centres around her. Vulnerable and alone, she opposes the unjust decree of Creon. She buries her brother, paying with her life for her defiance. The main theme of the tragedy is the conflict between the claims of the blood and the claims of the State, between religious and secular law. And it is Antigone, who raises the issue, challenging the right of the King, to encroach upon the unquestionable area of divine dispensation. Two things are disregarded by Creon, when he forbids the burial of Polyncices’s dead body. He flouts the eternal unwritten divine laws, that demand proper rites and burial of the dead, and he denies the sacred right of the blood relation to carry out the rituals and bury the dead. The first assertion that Antigone makes is that Creon has “no right to keep me from my own”. Her decision is made; “I shall bury him”. She has already made up her mind. She will die if necessary for what is described, paradoxically, as “this pure crime”. The king will punish her according to the king’s laws for her act of reverence in burying the dead body of her brother in accordance with the divine laws. Creon has his own reasons to deny burial to Polyncices’ dead body. As a traitor and an aggressor his body is denied burial; to be made an example of what dishonour waits such men. It is given to dogs and animals. Creon thinks that he is the state, he is not prepared to give any hearing to any voice of dissent. Antigone is caught, giving funeral libation to her brother’s body. She gives her reasons for defying Creon’s authority. No man, however powerful can flout the eternal laws of heaven. Antigone would not risk divine displeasure for the sake of obeying a man. She is condemned to be buried alive. Haemon’s intervention only hastens her doom. Creon’s pride, and self-will refuse to yield. Haemon rightly points out the moral sympathy of the city is with Antigone, he argues, requests and protests to no avail. His anger only hardens Creon in his resolve to punish Antigone. Finally Teiresias the blind prophet comes clearly warning Creon to change his ways, he is polluting the city, by his unholy order. Signs of divine displeasure are evident. The sacred fires refuse to burn, Creon has withheld the dues of the gods of the nether world, but Creon would not listen. To him, Teiresias, like others opposed to him, has been corrupted by money. Humiliated, Teiresias is provoked into speaking out the terrible predictions regarding Creon. The amends offered by the frightened Creon come too late. Advised by the chorus, he yields. The poor remains of the dead body of Polyneices is washed and buried. But neither 114 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English Antigone nor Haemon can be saved. Creon’s fate overtakes him. His stubbornness results in the consequential death of his wife and son. The later part of the play is about pride and its consequence. Antigone almost fades out. Nevertheless, she holds the dramatic interest and the play is about her. The Tragedy imperceptibly glides from the main theme of divine versus temporal law to another. The tragedy of Creon unfolds itself as the tragedy of self-will; of the sin of combating the divine will. This division makes the play structurally weak but not patently diptych in form. Professor Waldock thinks that Haemon’s love is the structural link between the two parts. Professor Bowra also thinks that the play is rightly called Antigone, as she is the most important figure in it. Surely her character is the most dramatically interesting. Professor Bowra says that the play is held together by Creon. As the subject is the conflict between Antigone and Creon, and she suffers in carrying out her family and divine obligations due to Creon’s folly, the tragedy ends appropriately with Creon’s humiliation. The theme of the play in its wider sense deals with the conflict between family and State, between an individual and the authority, between divine and human laws. Creon is swiftly punished for his pride and irreverence by divine justice. The innocents may suffer due to human folly, but gods are not blind to such suffering. Another pervasive theme in the play is the need to learn. The closing lines of the play–say “This is the law That, seeing the stricken heart of pride brought down We learn when we are old...” Learning through experience is the vital requirement for an individual, to reconcile himself with the world of gods and men. This is what Creon fails to do. His lack of flexibility, assertion of self-will, neglect of the sacred obligations of the rituals of burial and obedience to divine laws, violate the basic duties of man. He thinks, in his excess of pride, that he can control the world, both mundane and the spiritual. That no man can aspire to do so, is the lesson that Creon learns through suffering. Pride and arrogance cannot hold for long. The pitfalls are many, and the irreverent man is soon trapped in his own folly. The central idea of a Sophoclean tragedy is that through suffering, a man learns to be modest before the gods. 115 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature Antigone throughout acts for the gods. In resisting her, Creon resists them and pays for it. The conflict in a Sophoclean tragedy is mainly between divine and human purposes. It involves conflicts between human beings, but in the last resort it arises from man’s ignorance of their own state, or refusal to do what the gods demand. (C.M. Bowra, Sophoclean Tragedy) After the discussion of the theme of the play, we may conclude that the tragedy is rightly named. We agree with Professor Kitto that the play has two central characters; Creon and Antigone. Creon, with his petty concerns and closed mind, cannot sustain the claim to be the more dominant character. Antigone holds our interest throughout, providing the main motivation of the dramatic action. The emphasis, undoubtedly, is on her. Structurally the play is not tight, but it definitely does not fall into halves. The theme is rounded off with the fall of Creon through pride. The chorus should be regarded as one of the actors, it should be an integral part of the whole and take a share in the action, that which it has in Sophocles rather than in Euripides, as it has been said by Aristotle. The chorus was normally a group of like minded and similarly placed persons (like citizens, captives or senators) representing some strongly felt idea. Greek Tragedy developed out of the dithyrambic chorus of 50 members. This number came down to 12 in the later plays of Aeschylus. Sophocles increased it to 15. The members of the chorus were dressed in simple Athenian costume, in contrast with the heroic costume of the actors. The individuals of the chorus were ordinary Athenian citizens, trained to perform. As members of the audience, their appreciation contributed greatly to the excellence of Greek drama. The poetic quality of the choral lyrics and dance enhanced the beauty of the Greek Tragedy and often built up the tragic atmosphere or set the dramatic tone. It brought poetic relief, generalised the particular events and interpreted the action. 7. THE CHORUS 116 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English The chorus comprised the social background as it usually consisted of ordinary good citizens as contrasted with the main characters, who were always figures of lofty status. The members of the chorus are interested commentators projecting the more universal significance of the action. One of the members of the chorus acts as the leader and “may become virtually a character in the dramatis personae”. In a Sophoclean tragedy the chorus is limited to the present action and is always dramatic. The chorus in Antigone is composed of Theban elders. The theme of conflict between the claims of blood and the claims of the state–a public theme–concerns the chorus as members of the public. One of the traits of the chorus in the Sophoclean tragedy is its individuality. In Antigone, the chorus sympathises with the heroine, but does not approve of her action, as the ordinary Thebans do. Ironically it speaks the right thing but about the wrong person. The chorus shifts its sympathy back and forth between Antigone and Creon and thus it becomes a dramatic force. Sophocles uses the chorus as an actor and also as singers but the individual actor is always in the focus as the more important character. The chorus however is always present and always relevant which is not so with all the other actors. The chorus announces newcomers, receives messengers and fills up time-space. Its sometimes common-place comments allow for time to begin another speech. Sometimes instead of addressing the other actors, the characters speak to the chorus. The most important function of the chorus remains the lyrical one. Antigone is rich in its lyrical content. The first ode is dramatic as it celebrates the joy of the city in its deliverance and dispels the ominous air of the dialogue between the sisters and–ironically calls for night-long dances to be led by Dionysus, as the danger is past, so it will be forgotten. Like any other dramatic character, the chorus may also be wrong as in the conclusion of the Second Ode. The paean to glory of man ends with the idea that divine laws and temporal laws are to be observed for security and peace of the city. The ironical twist is that the two do not coincide and the temporal lord, Creon himself is endangering the city and his family through his defiance of gods. The third Ode foreshadows Creon’s fate with its forceful though unconscious warning: 117 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature To the man whom God will ruin one day shall evil seem Good in his twisted judgement He comes in a short time to fell disaster. The fifth Ode is sung after Antigone is led away to be interred in the stony cave. It brings lyrical relics, particularly needed at that agonising moment. The ode does not refer to Creon. The net! chorus in Antigone is wise and political and solidly on Creon’s side. But the Ode is full of ideas and images of dark fate and vengeance, of savage cruelty and meaningless torture. The presence of Creon on the stage is significant, as the audience knows and feels the senseless cruelty of the king towards Antigone. The last Ode is in prayer to Dionysus, to deliver the city from the impending evils. The odes are organic to the structure of the play Antigone, the most lyrical of all the existing plays of Sophocles. In H.D.F. Kitto’s words; “In the Antigone, the chorus carries more of the burden of the tragic theme, than in the later plays.” The role of the chorus is significant from another point of view. Sophoclean view of life is revealed in the choral odes as that of the wonders of man in the Antigone, and that of the laws of Heaven in Oedipus the King. In the first, the chorus sings of the supreme qualities and values of Man. The only thing beyond his power to conquer is death. In the second, his belief in the incomprehensible but mysterious and powerful force behind the universe is professed. The force that ordains the eternal and holy laws governing the universe: Man, the noblest creature works out his own destiny, makes his own choice, but under the guidance of divine presence and the laws of heaven. According to Prof. Bowra, the play concerns individual destinies and the ethical content of the tragedy, the fall of pride, is brought out through this conflict between two individuals; Creon and Antigone. These individuals meet their inexorable fate, but they are not puppets. They are free to choose their options; options which they can exercise within certain limits of the conditions of human existence, of divine laws pervading the universe which a man must obey or perish, or as in Antigone’s case-obey and perish. Check Your Progress 3 1. How does the chorus add to the drama in Antigone? 8. THE CHARACTERS 118 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English Antigone The heroine in the tragedy has a character, alive with real feelings and passions. She dominates the play from the outset and remains the most interesting character. At the beginning, she tries to associate Ismene with her task. The keyword in her dialogue with Ismene should be noted: What outrage threatens one of those we love. (Antigone, P.3, L.10) She considers it rightly, to be nothing short of outrage that Polyneices’ body is not to be buried. So he has decreed, Our noble Creon, to all the citizens, To you, to me. To me! (Antigone, P.4, L.28-33) She has already resolved: “I will bury my brother.” To Ismene’s frightened warning, she reacts only by repeating “he has no right to keep me from my own!” (P.4, L48). It is her love for her brother that makes her take on the might of the State. For her there is no room for an after-thought, no alternative, and the choice is made. She will obey the sacred laws and honourably bury her brother. This is the main theme of the play which she makes clear. Her single-minded purpose makes her intolerant of Ismene’s timidity. She contemptuously dismisses Ismene’s caution. She does not hide her contempt for Ismene when the latter pleads her inability to share Antigone’s defiance of Creon. Rather than continue to exist like a coward, Antigone will face death courageously in carrying out her noble mission, Indeed Antigone is the true daughter of her father Oedipus, staring danger full in the face, never flinching from truth. What enrages Creon, more and what adds to the stature of Antigone, is her defiance of him despite her apparent lack of resources and her vulnerability. A young woman described as a slave by Creon, Antigone shows unique strength of purpose in doing what she thinks is right and holy, without caring for personal consequences. As a matter of fact she is prepared 119 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature for death from the very beginning and never craves for any mercy from the tyrant who has disregarded the divine laws. The chorus describes her as fierce and defiant, showing her father’s temper “she will not yield to any storm” (p.17, L.462), Indeed Antigone does not consider any other point of view but her own. Prosessor Bowra makes a distinction between the apparent arrogance of Antigone and the real arrogance of Creon. The first deceives by its fine persuasive sentiments, the second works through Antigone’s refusal to offer concessions, or to consider any point of view but her own. Antigone refuses to make concessions yet her position is vindicated as the dramatic conflict is not between right and right, but between what is right and what is wrong. Antigone’s stand is for the established civilized and religious values that call for the proper treatment of the dead, and the rights of the family. These values are independent of all mundane considerations sought to be superimposed on them by Creon in the name of patriotism, loyalty to the king and everything else that goes along with these worldly virtues. Antigone is not burying her brothers body out of a cold sense of duty. A throbbing warm sense of love motivates her; the love of the mother bird for her fledglings. The guard describes her reacting to the desecration of Polyncices’ body as a mother bird would, finding her nest empty of its young. She tells Creon that she would not share the hatred of her brothers when they killed each other, but would love them both. Who knows that, may be in death, the brothers too are reconciled. In any case after death, they belong to the god of Death who demands the same rites for both the good and the wicked. She challenges the right of any man, howsoever powerful, to deny these rituals sanctified by god. The superhuman courage and strength of mind that Antigone shows, make her also a lonely soul. She does not expect any mercy from Creon and refuses to acknowledge the sisterly concern of Ismene. The chorus also gives her little comfort, when she is on her way to be buried alive, under Creon’s command. Her relationship with Haemon is only indirectly presented. But Sophocles was not portraying an abstraction in Antigone. She is very much a creature of flesh and blood, with normal expectations of womanhood. Before she is taken away finally, she mourns her cruel fate that sends her to her doom. She has no morbid wish to die, but neither could she avoid death, as it has come as a consequence of carrying out her most sacred obligation. She laments the curse holding in its grip the house of Labdacus, the cursed marriage of her parents, between a mother and a son. Now she has no hope of ever being married, or being a mother. Friendless, she goes to her doom. But she is sure to be welcomed in the 120 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English house of the dead, the dwelling of allshe held dear and by whom she has done her duty. She is comforted by the idea that her holy act of burying her dead brother, will be approved by all the right thinking wise men. She emphasises her sisterly love, as she says that only for a brother, she has defied death, and she would not have done so either for a son, or a husband. Unlike a husband or a son, a brother, she says, is irreplaceable. She finally disappears for ever, cursing her tormentor to suffer like her for the death so undeservedly thrust upon her. Creon Creon is one of the two central characters in the tragedy, the other one being Antigone. The dramatic conflict centres around the two. Creon stands for the rights of the State, of the temporal authority, as against the stand taken by Antigone for the claims of blood, of divine sanction and eternal laws. Creon is a very sympathetic character in Oedipus the King and a very different one in Antigone. It is felt by many interpreters that Creon is not wholly wrong in his decision to deny burial to a traitor’s body. He has his reasons and spells it out at length. But his experience and reason betray him, and over-confidence brings about his ruin. He is utterly materialistic, and he thinks that it is only motives of profit that can induce a person to defy the king’s orders. In the plays of Sophocles it is shown again and again that certainty and control are human illusions. Creon’s believed that, being the king, he was in control. He disregards the divine laws, and shows arrogance and pride. He considers women to be inferior beings and refers to them contemptuously. He refuses to yield when Haemon reasons with him, telling him of the subdued voice of the people who supported the pious-action of Antigone. He tries to persuade Haemon to see the rightness of his father’s stand. Failing, he gets more brutal and would kill Antigone before Haemon’s eyes. Creon’s dry rationalistic approach leaves no room for any human considerations. Worse, he is equally arrogant towards Teiresias. The blind Prophet tells him of his guilt how it has polluted the land and of the urgency to make amends. He has denied burial to the dead thus going against the gods of the lower world. He has given the most terrible punishment to an innocent maid for her act of piety thus going against the laws of heaven. For this Creon has exposed himself to the fury of the Erinyes (Avenging Deities). And they will make him pay for the act of profanation. Self-will has so much obsessed Creon that he blasphemes and charges Teiresias with motives of profit. No, not though Zeus’ own eagles eat the corpse And bear the carrion to their master’s throne Not even so, for scar of that defilement, 121 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature Will I permit his burial–for well I know That mortal man cannot defile the gods. But, old Teiresias, even the cleverest men Fall shamefully when for a little money They use fair words to mask their villainy. (P.35-36, L.1003-10) He does relent, but it is too late. Man has to be humble before all powerful gods. Antigone stood for all that is holy and in opposing her, Creon opposed the divine laws. His folly would not let him modify his ways. Haemon’s entreaties fall on deaf cars. Even the knowledge that Teiresias always makes correct prophecy, does not make him yield till it is too late. He has excessive confidence in himself and man’s power to control, and so he violates the divine laws. Creon’s life is robbed of meaning with the loss of his wife and child. Only after losing them he learns and confesses that “the guilt falls on me alone” (P. 44, L.1266). He realises his guilt and assumes responsibility for it. Thus Creon’s end is of great dramatic significance as it focuses on the fundamental view of life of Sophocles as well as on the pervasive theme of the play; learning through suffering to be humble before the God, the proud man is schooled in wisdom at the end. The closing lines of the tragedy tell us that learning takes place in time. It relates to flexibility and openness to experience that Creon lacked at the beginning. A. Teiresias: Teiresias’s introduction in the drama serves several important purposes. From the personal and the political level, the theme decisively widens to include larger issues. The conflict is between the eternal laws of the gods, and the ephemeral laws of man. For voicing the truth, Teiresias has been suspected by tyrants. Teiresias, a blind man, who can see beyond the reaches of normal human vision, categorically states that Creon is guilty of polluting himself and the city. Teiresias comes after Antigone has been dispatched to her death. He warns Creon, to correct his folly and see the right path, the right for which Antigone stood and died. There were visible portents which only the prophetic knowledge of Teiresias could interpret. The denial of burial to the dead has 9. THE ROLES OF; (A) TEIRESIAS, (B) THE SENTRY, (C) HAEMON, (D) ISMENE 122 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English brought pollution to the altars and homes of Thebes. He advises Creon to see reason, and not defy gods by humiliating the dead and injuring the weak. The sacred fire would not burn, the gods refuse to accept the offerings made to them. These are signs of great impending disaster and the amends should be made quickly to appease the angry gods. The angry and provoking reaction of Creon must have amazed the Athenian audience who were aware of the irony of the situation. Creon rises to the height of arrogance, defies Zeus and challenges Teiresias. Teiresias is provoked. He tells Creon that in his double sin of exposing the dead and entombing the living, he has become the target of the avenging furies who will surely take a severe toll from him. Soon they will seek death for death and claim a child of Creon to pay the price of his folly. Soon his house will ring with lamentation from men and women from the cities, whose sons were denied burial by Creon. Hatred for the Tyrant is moving in those cities polluted by dead men’s flesh, carried by birds and beasts to their homes. The prophecy frightens the chorus and also the domineering king. The second part of the speech by Teiresias is unambiguous and terrible. He leaves the scene, spelling out the part that destiny would now play in destroying Creon. He brings destruction upon himself through arrogance and folly. The blind seer sees it all, but his warning comes too late. Creon has already lost his balance before he is told by Teiresias that he is “Treading the razor’s edge.” It shows that man may act according to his own free will, but he cannot control the consequences that follow, that man must obey the divine laws, that hatred and tyranny recoil upon the man who hates and tyrannises, and most importantly, that gods will certainly strike at pride, injustice and irreverence. The innocent may suffer but the guilty will not get away. It is interesting to note the role of Teiresias in Sophocles’s Oedipus the King. The chorus leader introduces him as “The only man whose heart is filled with truth” and earlier he speaks of Teiresias “I know of none that reads Appollo’s mind so surely as the Lord Teiresias; consulting him you best might learn the truth”. Oedipus too, blames and threatens Teiresias in his innocence and pride. The Seer’s blazing anger voices the most terrible truth “you have your sight, yet you cannot see”. It is the inner vision that matters, not the outward vision. B. Sentry: The role of the Sentry in the play Antigone is important in quite a few respects. In the portrayal of a talkative sly man, we get an idea of the common man “on the outskirts of the tragedy who has escaped” (HDF Kitto, Greek Tragedy, P.155). Providing a contrast to the attitude of fearlessness of Antigone, the guard values his life above everything else. He acts as a foil to the character of Antigone. Sweating with fear he appears with the news of the 123 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature burial of the dead body of Polyneices, when Creon had just finished his announcement that anybody burying the dead man will be punished with death. The Sentry knows the angry reaction that his message will provoke. He starts with an elaborate plea of his own innocence. After a long speech he comes to the heart of the matter and finally blurts out that the prohibited burial has taken place. Creon explodes with anger at the Sentry who is asked to go and find out the guilty, otherwise he will be hanged. Creon accuses the Sentry of accepting a bribe and decides to teach him a lesson. The Sentry decides never to show his face again, lucky to have escaped the first time. The fear of death, natural in a common man brings into relief Antigone’s defiance of death. The scene where Antigone is brought to Creon by the Sentry is highly dramatic. All the three characters reacting differently to the situation. The Sentry is relieved, almost jubilant, to have conclusively proved his own innocence. Antigone, has achieved her sacred task, and is at peace with herself briefly, acknowledging the responsibility. Creon is slow to react to this incredible news of his own niece defying him. The Sentry is surprised at the quick vindication of his own innocence and the only moral which he can draw is that “against, nothing should a man take oath” (P.15, L380). He is honest, though vulgar. He feels sorry for the girl, knowing what she has to face, but still for him “my own escape comes before everything” (P.16, L.430). The Sentry represents the common man in every respect. The average Thebean is against the unjust decree of Creon, and has no grudge against Antigone. The Sentry voices the feeling of the average citizen when he says “It’s bad, to judge at random and judge wrong” (1.321, P.13). Creon is wrong to prohibit the burial and to suspect that the Sentry is one of the group of malcontent, motivated by monetary gains. And then he refers to Antigone as a friend and is pained to have been compelled to bring her to ruin. Apart from these functions, the Sentry gives a detailed account of Antigone’s act of burying the dead body. He is the dramatic agent to convey the vivid version of the burial of Polyneices’ body by Antigone, which is done off stage. The dramatic skill of Sophocles is evident in making the necessary information a close-knit part of the dramatic structure. The Sentry’s role is important and vital to the drama. Though a minor character, he is clearly portrayed with a few telling strokes. He occupies the scene briefly, but his fright, his cleverness, his instinct for self preservation, his feeling for others’ suffering, his absence of 124 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English ego, are presented effectively. The Sentry in Antigone remains alive as an average individual. He also provides a comic touch to the otherwise sombre play through his mannerisms and frank display of his overwhelming desire for sell-preservation. C. Haemon: Haemon and Antigone are never together on the stage and she speaks about him only once, answering the taunt of Creon, “O my dear Haemon how/your father wrongs you!” She feels that Creon is wrong to suggest that Haemon would take any other woman. Haemon, Creon’s son, interferes in the action towards the middle of the play. The dialogue between the father and the son is at the centre of the play. We already know that Haemon is to marry Antigone, and love for her motivates him to intercede on her behalf. But he does not mention his love. He politely reminds his father of the need to change and of the advantages of flexibility. He confirms himself as an obedient son and then proceeds to tell him that it is the well being of his father that he has in mind, when he is asking him to see reason. The city, approves the brave action of Antigone, burying her brother defying death–a glorious deed at once pious and loving. His temper gradually rises when no entreaty, no argument shake Creon’s determination. The only answer of Creon is denial of love and confirmation of his own rigid stand. Ultimately Haemon goes out in rage and Creon’s only reaction is to proceed with his act of cruelty in immediately commanding that Antigone should be buried alive. This is the last we see of Haemon. Later on we hear about him breaking open the tomb and lamenting his dead bride. Teiresias’s prophecy is fulfilled when Haemon kills himself. Haemon’s role11 is to assert the power to love that Creon denies. Creon mocks at Antigone`s sisterly love and condemns her to hell to go and love there if love she must. To Haemon, Creon preaches the need of obedience of a son to the father. He never once speaks of love, but dismisses Haemon’s attachment to Antigone as merely his pleasure in a woman. He thinks Haemon can have any other woman as his wife as his son’s love does not mean anything to him. The chorus speaks of the invincible power of Aphrodite. It is the influence of love that has made the son rebel against the father. It is the cosmic Eros holding sway over the universe, that has recoiled against Creon. Heamon turns violent at the tomb aiming his sword against his father. Creon has destroyed the last tie of the family bond in his inhumanity. Haemon and Antigone are united in death and their love lives. It is Creon who has lost all that he loved. 11 It is to be noted that love is the personal motive of both Antigone and Haemon in opposing Creon. Haemon gives political reasons and Antigone a religious one. 125 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature D. Ismene: Ismene is Antigone’s sister, but it seems Sophocles was out to create an effective contrast. The first scene opens with an air of conspiracy as the two sisters discuss Creon’s edict. Ismene is timid and weak, conceding that she will not be doing her duty by the dead, she pleads inability to rise against the might of the state. The king has forbidden the burial of the dead body of Polyneices. Antigone has decided to bury him. She resents this dishonour to her brother’s body she emphasizes the bond of blood, that calls upon her to carry out this burial, and love motivates her to do this sacred duty. She is prepared to sacrifice her own life, and angry with Ismene for her weakness. Ismene is scared lest her sister too should die. The reason she gives for conforming to the unjust law is curiously the one which doubly angers Creon against Antigone– Remember too that we Are women, not made to fight with men. (P.5 1.61-61) To Antigone such considerations carry no meaning. Life is empty of its worth if one has to survive on compromise. In the second scene where Ismene and Antigone are together, Ismene offers to be her partner in death. But Antigone would have none of it. She seems, here, to be rigid and stern. Since Ismene had refused to share her task out of fear, now Antigone refuses to let her share death. It is significant that at the end of the play only Ismene and Creon survive. The tyrant and his pliant victim. The two live on without love. They had denied the claims of love. Ismene had refused to join her sister in her task of love as she wanted to cling to life. Paradoxically she wants to share her sister’s fate, as she realises that life without love is empty of all meaning. Ismene introduces the love theme between Haemon and Antigone. She questions Creon whether he should be so unnatural as to kill his son’s bride. In answer Creon mocks at their love and makes vulgar insinuations. Ismene’s love is not strong enough to face death. Still, she does love her sister and is prepared to share the responsibility of the action for which Antigone is condemned. Antigone’s refusal of her offer brings out the loneliness of the Sophoclean heroine. However, at one point, the sisters have affinity of character. This affinity is in their devotion. Ismene ultimately is prepared to face death for the sake of her sister. She cannot be equal to Antigone who defies death, without a second thought, for the sake of her dead brother. Nevertheless, 126 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English her love gets the better of her timidity and she cries out “But what is life to me, without my sister?” (P.20, L.556) Write answers to any two questions in about 600 words each 1. The first song of the chorus is one of thanksgiving, calling for night long celebrations as dangers are past. Do you think dangers are really over for Thebes? 2. Ismene and Antigone are different in every way, though they are sisters. Do you find any sort of similarity between the two? 3. Notwithstanding, his preoccupation with self preservation, the guard in Antigone is not a wholly unpleasant character – Do you agree? 4. Teiresias comes with a friendly caution and departs with bitter warnings. Why does his attitude change?
