ARISTOPHANES, LYSISTRATA
GREEK THEATRE
As an art form, Greek theatre has its origins in the religious festivals, such as The Great Dionysia and the Lenaea, in the sixth century BCE. These festivals were held every year, over a period of four to five days, and the plays were performed as part of a competition. The archon or chief magistrate of the city selected one poet who would present a trilogy of three plays and one satyr play, for comic relief. In addition, two comedies by two other poets were presented. The production of the plays was financed largely out of public funds: actors were paid by the state and choruses by private citizens. A choregoi, who was usually an affluent citizen, looked after the aspects of production, such as costumes and selection of chorus, and a jury of ten members selected the winners. Inhabitants of the city would have flocked to see these plays, performed during religious festivals. The plays were performed in large open-air theatres, with a seating capacity of 14- 20,000 spectators. The amphitheatre, semi-circular in shape, was usually built out of a hill-side and in the shape of a truncated, inverted cone. (Figure 1) The last row of seats would have been around a hundred and twenty feet from the ground. The central performing area, known as the orchestra, was circular in shape, with a diameter of around eighty-five feet. This is where the chorus would have stood and danced, throughout the play. Sometimes, the actor would enter the orchestra but the chorus never left it. Behind the orchestra was the skene, a two-storey wooden structure meant to represent any building or its interior; such as a palace, temple or cave. With a door, it provided an entry point for the actors and, most probably, a place where they could change costumes for the next part. In front of the skene was a raised platform. In 2. GREEK THEATRE 131 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature Lysistrata, the skene would have represented the Acropolis, where the women have laid siege
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Resources were limited, so there were very few changes of scene. Events that took place offstage were narrated by a messenger. Sometimes, mechanical devices like a crane or deux ex machina was used to show the entry of gods and an ekkyklema or a wheeled trolley was used to show indoor scenes. In Sophocles’ Antigone, for instance, the body of Eurydice would have been brought out on an ekkyklema. Many of these amphitheatres, built between the fourth and second centuries BCE, stand on archaeological sites all over Greece and form a major tourist attraction. There are fifteen such ancient theatres and the Dionysian theatre, on the slope of the Acropolis in Athens is the 132 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English oldest and considered the birthplace of drama. In the image above, you can observe the layout of one such theatre. Note the arrangement of ascending seats and the circular orchestra, which forms a model for similar structures even today. However, the skene, which was a temporary wooden structure is missing here. It is important to remember that the plays were performed in conditions very different from modern theatre, which allows a great deal of freedom as far as representation of emotions is concerned. The actor in Greek plays had to depend on his voice and gestures to make an impact on the audience. You would be interested to know that the acoustics of these theatres are so good that the actor’s voice would have reached the spectators seated in the last row. It is reported that, even today, in the theatre of Epidaurus, the sound of a coin dropping on the floor can be heard in the last rows.
It was not a naturalistic theatre of the kind we are used to and subtle, nuanced acting would have been lost in those surroundings. Plays were always performed in daylight and under an open sky. All actors wore masks, with exaggerated expressions painted on them
making it easier for the audience to read facial expressions from a distance and one actor to play many parts. The masks would fit the face, had wigs attached, and open mouths to allow clear speech. In addition, there were holes for the eyes and ears. These masks or prosopon were made of wood, leather, or linen and were of stock characters: angry old man, servant, young lover, courtesan. Historians list twenty-six types of masks in tragedy and around fortyfour in comedy. In Figures 2 and 3, there are images of reproductions of ancient Greek comic masks. The actual masks used in Greek theatre were burned as an offering to Dionysus, in whose honour the plays were performed. Archaeological evidence, like numerous paintings on Grecian urns and small terracotta figurines, helped historians reconstruct these. There are around two hundred such mixing vessels, depicting theatrical performances, at various places all over the world. It is an attestation of how important theatre was for ancient Greeks. The rule about the number of actors was rigid and only four actors were allowed to perform. This was done to save the cost to the state, which paid these professional actors. Men performed all the parts in the plays; those of women included. Some believe that it could have been due to the paucity of professional actors. Some male actors specialized in playing female parts. In Lysistrata, four actors would have performed some twenty parts and the chorus, as was the custom, would have remained on the stage throughout. However, poets didn’t always conform to these rules. Aristophanes has two choruses in the play, comprising twelve actors each. In comedy, the actors wore short tunics with padding and large phalli. Characters from the upper strata of society wore long robes and high platform heels underneath. In this short space it is not possible to present an exhaustive account of ancient Greek theatre. However, it is important to be aware of these to fully appreciate the contribution of Greek theatre in the development of drama. Activity 1 With the help of online resources, write brief notes on; – The City Dionysia – Masks in ancient Greek theatre 134 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English Aristophanes’ work belongs to the period known as Old Comedy (445 – 385 BCE) and he is the only poet whose works have come down to us. Not much is known about Aristophanes, except what can be gleaned from his plays. It is speculated that he was born around 449 BCE and, in a career spanning around forty years, he wrote forty plays. However, only eleven of his plays are available today. His first play, The Banqueters won a prize at the City Dionysia in 427 BCE and his second play, The Babylonians won the first prize the following year. The subject matter of tragedy was borrowed from ancient mythology or legend, with each poet giving his own treatment. In comedy, the plays dealt with more topical matters; satirizing politicians and social evils. The subject matter of Aristophanes’ plays is diverse, ranging from political and social satire to mythological parodies, as in Birds. The Clouds (423 BCE) is a satire against the famous philosopher Socrates and Frogs (405 BCE), an attack of Euripides. Three of his plays have war and peace as their subject: Acharnians (425 BCE), Peace (421 BCE), and Lysistrata (411 BCE). Lysistrata is the last of the peace plays and it is a dream about peace, at a time when Athens was going through a political crisis. More of this will be discussed in the next section. Athens was at the height of her power when Aristophanes was a young boy. All adult males had an equal say in policy decisions; taken in the Assembly by a show of hands. Under the strong leadership of Pericles, Athens had successfully fought a war against Persia, becoming an indomitable power at sea. Between 462 - 431 BCE, Pericles transformed the city, spending money on public buildings, such as the Acropolis; as revenue poured in from confederate states. He transformed a military alliance into the Athenian empire. At the time, Sparta was the greatest power on land and growing resentment and dissatisfaction with Athenian supremacy led to war in 431 BCE. After Pericles’ death, Cleon took over and the war dragged on, ending in a compromise in 421 BCE, known as the Peace of Nicias, in which Sparta suffered the greater losses. After six years of peace, in 415 BCE, Athens provoked another war with the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta, launching an attack on Sicily in 413 BCE. However, Athens suffered the destruction of its naval force in 4. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR (431-404 BCE) 3. ARISTOPHANES 135 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature Sicily; losing two hundred of its ships and around twenty thousand men, and was surrounded by hostile Spartan forces and Persian governors. By 411 BCE, when Lysistrata was written, Athens had regained its naval strength and there were rumours of negotiations between Sparta and Persia. It is against this backdrop that the events in the play take place. Eventually, Athens went on to surrender to Sparta in 404 BCE, forever ending its political supremacy over Greece and bringing the golden age of Greece to an end. Greek theatre followed many conventions as far as structure was concerned. The plays usually followed a set pattern, which I will briefly touch upon. It was not divided into acts or scenes but other demarcations were well-defined. These are briefly listed; Prologos: this is the Prologue or the beginning of the play, where there is an exposition of the main situation. Parodos: this is the first appearance of the chorus. Agon: this is generally followed by the Agon or contest, which literally translates into a debate between two antagonists, one of whom loses. Parabasis: an ode in which the chorus members remove their masks and address the audience directly. Episodes: these scenes involve the actors in dialogue with each other and the chorus. Stasimon: this refers to the choral song, following each scene. No other actor is present at this point. Exodos: this is the exit scene, usually depicting feasting, singing, and dancing. The chorus, as mentioned earlier, stayed in the middle of the performing area throughout the play and the lyrics were sung by them in unison, to the accompaniment of musical instruments. Aristophanes’ play follows this pattern in most parts. However, a noticeable innovation is the inclusion of two choruses, comprising twelve members each. You will notice how almost each major scene is followed by a choral song. The choral songs were an integral part of Greek theatre, serving as a moral indicator, especially in tragedy. One of the two choruses in Lysistrata comprises twelve old men as, presumably, the young ones are away, fighting the war. They are comic figures, weak and bashed up by the old women. There are indications in the play that they are former soldiers, now dependent on 5. THE STRUCTURE OF GREEK COMEDY 136 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English the state for a pension. The other chorus of twelve old women are from the lower strata of society: “inn-keepers, bakers, garlic vendors” (158). The title of the play refers to its main protagonist, Lysistrata, whose name means ‘liquidator of armies.’ She is an Athenian and proud to be one. Tired of the suffering around her, she decides to do something to establish peace in her country. The name Lysistrata resonates with the name Lysimache (which means ‘liquidator of battles) who was the high-priestess in Athena’s temple and one of the most visible public figures at the time. At the beginning of the play, Lysistrata is waiting for all the women she has summoned, from across the various city states of Greece. Line 1-254: Prologos Lysistrata is seen standing outside her house, impatiently waiting for the women to turn up. Her friend Calonice explains that they must have got delayed because of household chores. Lysistrata is excited and she tells Calonice that “we women have the salvation of all Greece in our hands” (142). Soon, women from different parts of Greece turn up: Boeotian women led by Ismenia, Spartan women led by Lampito, and women from Corinth. Note how they are depicted; Lampito speaks in a rustic style and Ismenia stinks. There are references to smelly shrubs and body types, pointing to inter-state rivalries. Lysistrata begins by touching on their personal hardship; “The fathers of your children - don’t you miss them when they’re away at the war?” (145). She then describes her simple plan to force all participants in the war to end it: the women should all get together and go on a sex strike; LYSISTRATA: Then I will tell you my plan: there’s no point in keeping it back. Women, if we want the men to make peace, we must renounce – [She hesitates]. MYRRHINE: Renounce what? Go on. LYSISTRATA: Then you’ll do it? MYRRHINE: At the cost of our lives, if need be. [All indicate enthusiastic agreement.] LYSISTRATA: Very well then. We must renounce – sex (145). 6. STUDY GUIDE 137 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature Lysistrata’s proposal is met with disapproval from all the women, except the Spartan Lampito. However, Lampito thinks that the abundant wealth of Athens, lying in the state treasury in the Acropolis might form a hurdle, as the men would still have access to abundant resources for the war. Aristophanes’ play follows this pattern in most parts. However, a noticeable innovation is the inclusion of two choruses, comprising twelve members each. Lysistrata declares that they are going to occupy the Acropolis that very day. In an apparent parody of Greek heroic customs, the women fill a bowl with grape juice and take an oath to abstain from sex, till their husbands agree to make peace. In the first unit of this paper, you must have read the Odyssey, which is a celebration of Greek heroism. The epic is peppered with incidents where the warriors sacrifice animals and offer their blood to the gods, before taking an oath or in an attempt to placate an angry god. Here, the women do not kill any animal, but use grape juice. Suddenly a shout is heard: the Citadel of Athena has been captured. Lampito is asked to leave her companions behind and return to Sparta with a proposal to negotiate peace. Note how Lysistrata has brought together women from different city-states of Greece. Her purpose is to create a peaceful nation – one that rises above the rivalries between the different states. The women are in agreement as far as the need for peace is concerned. They use surprisingly bawdy language and there are numerous jokes about sexual positions and sex toys. This part of the play forms the Prologos, where the central issue of the play is set out. Line 254–705: Parodos, Agon, and Parabesis A chorus of old men appears. Aristophanes has broken from tradition and included two choruses of twelve men and twelve women each in this play. The men are carrying logs of wood and pots in which to burn the logs. Their aim is to drive the women out of the Acropolis, with the help of smoke. They keep muttering derogatory remarks against the women; calling them “a pestilent disease” and “enemies of the gods” (151). The old men try, Check Your Progress i) Define the prologos. ii) Why does Lysistrata plan to lay siege to the Acropolis? iii) Why is Lampito sent back to Sparta? 138 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English without much success, to burn the logs that they have brought with them. The Men’s Leader prays to Athena Nike, the goddess of victory, for help. The second chorus, comprising twelve old women and led by Stratyllis, comes on stage. They are carrying pitchers of water and are equally dismissive of the men, calling them “old half-wits” and a “gang of male scum” (153, 154). They have come, determined to help their companions. It is interesting how Aristophanes sets up an opposition between the two genders; through the two choruses and symbolic associations of fire with war and water with peace. As mentioned earlier, the first appearance of the chorus is known as the parodos. The men and women keep exchanging bitter insults and threats, ending in the women throwing water on the men. This marks a victory for them, as they have sabotaged the old, seasoned warriors’ attempt to drive the women out of the Acropolis. A Magistrate enters at this point, accompanied by four Scythian policemen and two slaves, carrying crowbars. The Leader of the men complains to him about the women beating them up. Like the male chorus, the Magistrate speaks disparagingly about the women and thinks it is “the unbridled licentiousness of the female sex displaying itself” (154). To prove his point, he recalls how, at a time when a politician named Demostratus was urging the Athenian Assembly to send a naval expedition to Sicily, how a drunk woman was lamenting the death of Adonis on her rooftop. The young Adonis was worshipped as a god in Athens, as he was the mortal lover of Aphrodite, ancient Greek goddess of love; but he was killed by a boar and died in her arms The women mourned his death every year in a ritual lamentation on their rooftops. The drunk woman’s words could be viewed as an ominous portent, as Athens lost thousands of young soldiers in Sicily but Demostratus paid no heed to her. Even the Magistrate does not understand that the drunk woman was giving a veiled warning, though he curses Demostratus, calling him a “dirty villain” (156). The Magistrate needs money from the state treasury to buy timber to make oars. There is perhaps an oblique reference to the shortage of timber after Athens suffered the loss of almost her entire navy in Sicily. He orders his men to forcibly open the doors of the Acropolis with the help of crowbars. At this point, Lysistrata emerges and confronts the Magistrate, who orders his men to tie her up but the women, led by Stratyllis, threaten them. Lysistrata calls to the women inside the Acropolis and they come out. Following her orders, they punch and kick the constables and the Men’s Leader tells the Magistrate “not to deal with sub-human creatures” (159). The Magistrate asks Lysistrata; 139 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature MAGISTRATE [to Lysistrata]: Well, the first thing I want to know is – what in Zeus’ name do you mean by shutting and barring the gates of our own Acropolis against us? LYSISTRATA: We want to keep the money safe and stop you from waging war. MAGISTRATE: The war has nothing to do with money – LYSISTRATA: Hasn’t it? Why did Peisander, and all those other office-seekers, always keep stirring up trouble? To get more opportunities for stealing public funds, of course! (159-160) Peisander was considered to be a corrupt politician, who was bribed to bring about the Peloponnesian War. Lysistrata displays exceptional acumen in laying siege to the state treasury. She knows that the sex strike alone may not act as a strong deterrent against war. In a tactical move, worthy of a seasoned warrior, she ensures that the men of Athens are deprived of the money necessary to wage war. To the Magistrate’s assertion that women have no understanding of finances, she retorts that if women can be trusted to manage household funds, they can be trusted to control state funds and ensure peace. Lysistrata goes on to tell the Magistrate that women are not allowed to express an opinion, when it comes to matters of state. They are usually silenced by their own husbands when they attempt to question decisions taken in the Assembly. Now, the women have decided to take matters in their own hands and put an end to the mismanagement by the men. When the Magistrate taunts Lysistrata, she removes her veil and places it on his head. The women in the chorus applaud her action and pledge their support. Lysistrata predicts that one day, all the women will come to be known as “Liquidators of War” (162). She goes on to declare that she will put an end to the practice of men moving around in full armour, “like lunatics,” even when it is not necessary, as when they go shopping (162). She wants to put an end to displays of masculine aggression in public spaces. When the Magistrate asks Lysistrata how she proposes to deal with the current international situation she replies, using an extended metaphor of unravelling wool: “Actually, if you had any sense, you’d run the whole City on the model of the way we deal with wool” (163). She explains, in detail, the whole process - from cleaning the wool to creating a warm coat out of it. Read the passage carefully, as it illustrates the quality of statesmanship in Lysistrata: 140 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English Imagine the citizen body is a raw fleece. You start by putting it in a bath and washing out the dung; then lay it on a bed, beat out the villains with a stick and pick out the burrs. Then you have to deal with the cliques, who knot themselves together to get chosen for public office; you must card those out and pick off their heads. Then you card all the wool into the basket of Civic Goodwill – including everyone, immigrants, friendly foreigners – yes, and even those who are in debt to the Treasury! Not only that. There are many other states which are colonies of Athens. At the moment these are lying all over the place, like little flocks of wool. You should pick them up, bring them here, and put them together in one ball of wool – and from that you can weave the People a nice, warm coat to wear (164). This speech of Lysistrata’s demonstrates her deep understanding and wisdom. It is all the more remarkable that, though belonging to a patriarchal society where women could not vote, she prescribes a model of governance that is inclusive and intolerant of personal ambition and insurgency. Not surprisingly, the Magistrate dismisses her suggestions, pointing out that the women have made no contribution to the war effort. Lysistrata reminds him that it is the women who have provided sons for battle and have had to deal with their loss; a sacrifice that has gone unacknowledged and undocumented. This long exchange between the Magistrate and Lysistrata constitutes the agon in the play. The women adorn the Magistrate, as they would a corpse ready to be taken to the grave. Furious, he exits the stage with his slaves. Lysistrata and the two old women go back inside the Acropolis and the logs, pots, and pitchers are removed from the stage, leaving the two choruses facing each other on the stage. The chorus of men blame the Spartans for inciting the women and pose threateningly. Note that they remove their garments at this point. The women respond in similar fashion. They express their gratitude for the honour of being chosen to participate in the festivities and rituals associated with Athena Polis, the patron saint of the city. They also question the men about the whereabouts of the gold seized from the Persians during the war. There are mutual recriminations and the men withdraw when Stratyllis threatens them. This is the parabasis in the play. However, instead of addressing the audience, as was the convention, the two choruses fight with each other. 141 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature Lines 706 – 979: First episode and stasimon; second episode and stasimon This is the first episode of the play. Five days have passed since the women occupied the Acropolis. Lysistrata comes out in a state of agitation. The women have started to rebel against the sexual abstinence and come up with all sorts of excuses to return home to their husbands. One even pretends to be pregnant, by putting Athena’s helmet under her dress. There are many such farcical moments in the play. To motivate the women, Lysistrata tells them that she has an oracle that says that they will triumph if they stay united. The audience would have immediately understood that it was fake as oracles were supposed to be short, cryptic messages, whereas Lysistrata reads out a poem; ‘When the swallows escape from the hoopoes and gather together, Keeping away from the cock-birds, then trouble and sorrow will persish, Zeus will make high into low – But if the swallows rebel and fly from the sacred enclosure, Then ‘twill be patent to all that there’s no bird that’s so nymphomaniac’ (172). It is interesting to note that ‘swallow’ was slang for the female genitals and the ‘cock-birds’ a pun on male genitals. She returns inside with the women, leaving the two choruses facing each other. In this first stasimon, the choral song that follows an episode, the chorus of men sing of one Melanion, who is called wise because he “loathed women” (172). The women, in turn, sing praises of Timon, who detested the company of men but adored women. The two choruses move to opposite sides of the orchestra, the central performing area, and the women carry their own garments as well as the men’s. This is the first stasimon. Check Your Progress i) Why do the men bring logs of wood with them? ii) Comment on the metaphor of wool used by Lysistrata. iii) Why, in your opinion, do the men and women remove their garments? 142 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English In the second episode, Lysistrata appears on the ramparts and notices a man coming from afar: it is Cinesias, the husband of Myrrhine. He is described as being in a state of sexual excitation, which would have been depicted on the stage with the help of a leather phallus. Such conventions were the accepted norm at the time. He is accompanied by a male slave carrying his infant son. He appeals to his wife, Myrrhine to return home. Following Lysistrata’s instructions, Myrrhine tantalizes him with the possibility of sex but rushes back inside at the critical moment. Cinesias voices his frustration in sexually explicit language. A Spartan Herald enters; in the same condition as Cinesias. Observe how he attempts to hide his state by wearing a loose tunic. But it doesn’t go unnoticed. He complains that Lampito has incited the women of Sparta to go on a sex strike. He has come to Athens, to “talk of a settlement” (180). Cinesias urges the Herald to return to Sparta and send delegates to negotiate peace and he promises that he, on his part, will speak to the Council to choose delegates to represent Athens. Lysistrata’s strategy seems to have had its desired impact. They both leave the stage. In the second stasimon, the Men’s Leader expresses his loathing for the women. Stratyllis offers to dress him in his clothes and even removes a gnat that has been lodged in his eye. There is unmistakable symbolism in this act: Stratyllis helps the Men’s Leader see clearly. She wipes his tears and even kisses him. All the women in the chorus kiss the men. It is a moment of tenderness, displaying the best of feminine qualities; caring, compassion, and nurturing. There is none of the belligerence that dominated the exchanges between the choruses till now. They resolve to unite and sing songs together. They invite everyone to a banquet and even offer loans to anyone who needs one. Line 1071- 1214: Third episode and stasimon In the third episode, the Spartan delegates enter, all in a state of sexual arousal. The Athenian delegates also arrive; in the same state and trying to hide their embarrassment by leaning Check Your Progress i) Mention some of the excuses made by the women trying to return home. ii) Who is Cinesias? Why has he come for his wife? iii) Describe the change in Stratyllis’ behaviour at the end of the second stasimon. 143 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature forward. Lysistrata is called out as she’s “the only person who can bring about a true reconciliation” (185). She appears and calls out a young woman, aptly named ‘Reconciliation.’ The young woman is naked and it seems that it is another of Lysistrata’s strategic moves. The naked woman, as expected, keeps the delegates conveniently distracted while Lysistrata acts as a mediator. Remember that, in ancient Greek theatre, men played the parts of men and women both: so, ‘Reconciliation’ would have been a man dressed to look like a naked woman. Throughout this scene, Reconciliation remains silent. Lysistrata reminds the Spartans and Athenians of their common Greek heritage and how, in the past, they helped each other in times of crises. She persuades each side to return conquered territories and convince their allies to maintain peace in Greece. Note how the body of Reconciliation is used as a metaphor for different territories in this scene. The scene is a mix of sober and farcical elements. The seriousness of the situation is undermined by the presence of the naked Reconciliation. All the while that Lysistrata is acting as an arbitress, both the Spartan and Athenian men are preoccupied with thoughts of sex. She invites all of them to “maintain purity” and share the food the women have brought to the Acropolis (188). The chorus sings, offering wheat to whoever needs it, but also warning that the trunk might be empty. Line 1215 – 1321: Exodos A couple of Athenians enter the stage in a drunken state, satisfied that their negotiations with the Spartan delegates have gone well; “If the Athenians took my advice, they’d always go drunk on diplomatic missions” (190). When a Spartan delegate comes out, he sings of their camaraderie. Lysistrata appears, accompanied by the Athenian and Spartan women, wearing the aegis of Athena, protector of the city state. The aegis was a leather cloak, supposed to possess supernatural powers and decorated with the head of a Gorgon. She invokes various gods in the Greek pantheon, expressing gratitude for the “solemn vow” taken by the Athenian and Spartans (192). Aristophanes is clearly granting divine sanction to Lysistrata’s actions. The wives are reunited with their husbands and order restored. The Spartan sings another song and the play ends in general festivity. Check Your Progress i) Who is ‘Reconciliation’ and what does Lysistrata ask her to do? ii) What advice does Lysistrata have for the Athenian and Spartan delegates? 144 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English War and Peace As discussed in the Historical Background, the play was written in the backdrop of the Peloponnesian War. Almost every city-state of Greece was allied to either Athens or Sparta: two of the most powerful ones. Its main protagonist, Lysistrata speaks up against the human cost of war; MAGISTRATE: . . . What have you ever done for the war effort? LYSISTRATA: Done, curse you? For one thing, we’ve given you sons, and then had to send them off to fight. MAGISTRATE: Enough, don’t open old wounds. LYSISTRATA: For another, we’re in the prime of our lives, and how can we enjoy it, with our husbands always away on campaign and us left at home like widows? And quite apart from us married women, what about the unmarried ones who are slowly turning into old maids? (164) In an otherwise comic play, this sombre exchange highlights the suffering endured by women in times of war. The two choruses hurling abuses at each other – replete with bawdy jokes, puns, and references to male and female genitals - creates an opposition where men are identified with war and women with peace. Led by Lysistrata, the women go on a sex strike and capture the state treasury at the Acropolis. In the context of all these, it is not surprising that Lysistrata has been termed ‘anti-war’ in its stance. However, a close reading of the play suggests otherwise. As Sommerstein observes about Aristophanes: “It is an egregious mistake to portray him as a pacifist. He fully shares or at least regularly voices the pride felt by all Athenians in their victories over the Persians at Check Your Progress i) Why do the Athenians feel that it is better to go drunk on diplomatic missions? ii) Why is Lysistrata shown carrying Athena’s aegis? iii) Comment on the significance of the Spartan singing two songs in the end. 7. MAJOR THEMES IN THE PLAY 145 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature Marathon in 490 and Salamis in 480 . . .” (xx). The women are aware that the Acropolis has a vault where the money paid to Athens, as tribute by its allies, is stored. They accuse the men of squandering the wealth acquired by Athens: Where’s all the gold Your fathers took from Persian foes of old? You’ve squandered it and live instead on tax – (167). The play is not so much ‘anti-war’ as it is a vision of peace between Athens and Sparta; warring city-states of Greece. Throughout the play, we catch glimpses of the rivalry between these traditional foes. The Athenians think that the Spartans are uncouth and untrustworthy. As the Men’s Leader says: “he who trusts a Spartan trusts a snake” (165). However, Lysistrata tells the Athenians and Spartans; You worship the same gods at the same shrines, Use the same lustral water, just as if You were a single family – at Olympia, Delphi, Thermopylae – how many more Could I make mention of, if it were needed? And yet, though threatened by barbarian foes, You ruin Greece’s towns and slay her men (186). Here, she underlines their common religious and cultural heritage, and shared Greek identity. She goes on to remind the Athenians how Sparta helped them expel the tyrant Hippias; whereas the Athenians helped Sparta suppress a rebellion in Messenia. There is a warning of “barbarian foes” attacking in the future. As Sommerstein observes; “Aristophanes’ ideal vision of Greek politics, briefly mentioned in Peace (line 1082) and given concrete form in dance and song at the end of Lysistrata, is of Athens and Sparta ‘ruling Greece together’ in friendly collaboration” (xxi). It would not be incorrect to assume that the play is more pro-Sparta, rather than anti-war. As Lysistrata declares; “we women got together and decided to save Greece” (161). Her vision is of a Greece that stands united against the Persians. It is not a coincidence that, at the end of the play, it is a Spartan delegate who sings of their combined resistance to the Persian invasion of Greece in the past. He credits the 146 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English Athenians with victory against the Persians at the sea-battle at Artemisium in 480 BCE whereas, in reality, it was an inconclusive battle. Around the same time, in Thermopylae, the Spartan King Leonidas led his men from the Persian enemy. The fact that all the Spartans were eventually killed is conveniently omitted; SPARTAN: Send me thy child, the Muse of fame, Who knows the pride of Sparta’s name And Athens’ feats at sea, O holy Memory: How once they focht in days of yore Close by the Artemisium shore - Fu’ godlike were their deeds, And well they whipped their Medes [Persians]. Leonidas led us from home: Like boars, oor cheeks ran white wi’ foam, Like boars, oor teeth we whet, And doon our legs ran sweat. The Persian men they filled the land In numbers mair than grains o’sand, Whom we opposed that day At famed Thermopylae (191). The play has left behind an enduring legacy as a pacifist play. But we must not lose sight of the fact that Lysistrata speaks with a sense of Greek nationalism; not against war per se. Gender A large part of the play is devoted to bitter wrangling between the two choruses, comprising old men and old women, who stand at opposing ends of the orchestra and hurl abuses and insults at each other. In the middle of this is the strong, confident, and wise Lysistrata who decides on a unique strategy to end war between the two most powerful city-states of Greece. 147 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature The play has, understandably, been hailed as feminist by many readers. However, as with ‘anti-war,’ any label should be applied with caution. The play needs to be understood in its historical context. In Aristophanes’ time women did not have much of a position in a dominantly patriarchal society. Though lauded as the earliest example of a democratic society, where every citizen was a member of the Assembly and had a vote, ancient Greek society excluded women from politics. They were denied an education, had no legal status, and were barred from owning property or appearing as witnesses in courts. They were not allowed to participate in the Olympics and other games. Married at an early age, women were confined to the home and expected to manage the household; occupying themselves with cooking, spinning, and weaving. Jones points out that even their tombstones did not have their names on them; only their husband’s (95). The general belief was that a woman’s main purpose in life was to give birth to and rear children. This belief was so firmly entrenched that even Hippocrates, considered the Father of Medicine, believed that women who did not become mothers were prone to various illnesses (61). It is still a matter of debate that women were allowed to watch plays during the City Dionysia, though they were represented on the stage. The novelist Virginia Woolf has noted this paradox and, speaking about the tragic heroines on stage, says; A very queer, composite being thus emerges. Imaginatively, she is of the highest importance; practically she is completely insignificant. She pervades poetry from cover to cover; she is all but absent from history. She dominates the lives of kings and conquerors in fiction; in fact she was the slave of any boy whose parents fixed a ring upon her finger. Some of the most inspired words, some of the most profound thoughts in literature fall from her lips; in real life she could hardly read, could scarcely spell, and was the property of her husband (10). Though Aristophanes’ play has a strong woman at its centre, much of the comedy in Lysistrata is based on stereotypes about women as slaves to their passions. When Lysistrata proposes a sex strike, Lampito is the only one who supports her without reluctance. Lysistrata comments ironically; LYSISTRATA: I didn’t realize that we women were a total lot of nymphos. The tragic poets were right about us after all: shag, calve and dispose of, that’s the way we live (146). It should be noted that it is, perhaps, distrust of her own sex that makes Lysistrata change her original plan. Though all the women swear to go on a sex strike in the Prologue, they end 148 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English up in the Acropolis, away from their homes and temptation. Once the women are inside, many of them attempt to escape by making excuses, even though only five days have elapsed since they entered the Acropolis. They come across as unable to manage their sexual urges. Lysistrata has to stop them by coming up with a story about an oracle. Lysistrata has the courage to act on her convictions. She summons women from the warring city states into a public space and with immense daring, captures the Acropolis, which is the stronghold of the state treasury. It is under her leadership that the women succeed in their mission to force the men to make peace. At the same time, it is significant that the women have to resort to using sex as a weapon to get their message across – not through intellectual debate or political solutions. Many critics have pointed to the historical anomaly in this strategy. The underlying assumption is that marital sex was the only kind available to Greek men. However, it is a well-documented fact that it was the norm for married men to have extramarital sex with mistresses, concubines, and female slaves. Myrrhine raises the possibility of the husbands forcing themselves on their wives but Lysistrata dismisses it with the suggestion: “make yourselves frigid” (146). When Cinesias comes looking for his wife Myrrhine, there is a long-drawn scene, where he ends up being denied the pleasure of sex with her. More frustrated than ever, he says: CINESIAS: O what, tell me what, is there for me to do? And, robbed of her beauty, who’s there for me to screw? Philostratus, I need you, do come and help me quick: Could I please hire a nurse for my poor orphan prick? (179) Philostratus was a well-known pimp of the time and the fact that Cinesias calls out to him is clear enough indication of the prevailing practices. The misogynist underpinnings of the play are unmistakable. This is glaringly obvious in the scene where Lysistrata calls out Reconciliation. To the modern mind, trained to catch the slightest whiff of sexism, it is distressing to watch the Athenian and Spartan delegates lay claim to territories, using her body as a metaphorical map. Even the most comic of intentions cannot reconcile us to the disturbing implications here. But then we need to repeatedly recall that this play was written 2500 years ago and viewing it from a modern lens is not appropriate. From a historical context, Lysistrata is a play, written by a man, performed by men for what was, in most likelihood, an all-male audience. A large part of the comedy is sexual in 149 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature nature and hinges on the fantastical belief that a sex strike can be an effective political tool. Moreover, a large part of the humour is directed at the women. To sum up, read this quote by Zuckerberg; “Somehow, the character of Lysistrata has transcended her misogynist Aristophanic roots to become an iconic yet flawed exemplar of feminist activism (n.p.)” Lysistrata appears as an independent woman in the play. Though she understands the power women wield over men as far as sex is concerned, she never mentions a husband or children of her own. In a society where women had a subordinate status, Lysistrata emerges as a vocal representative of Athenian women. She knows how their voices are silenced at home: though they disapprove of many political decisions taken in the Assembly, they are not allowed to speak out. Lysistrata is extremely intelligent and has all the qualities that define a good leader. Through her appeal to the women, she is successful in persuading them to go on a sex strike. Her skill in planning and implementing the strategy to capture the Acropolis is admirable; she knows that control of the state treasury will give them leverage. Her understanding of state matters is highlighted especially in the long exchange with the Magistrate. Recall how she counters each point of his with wise words. Though she uses a metaphor from the domestic domain, Lysistrata stresses the importance of making efforts to establish peace between warring and rival city states, through diplomatic efforts. The ultimate aim of governance should be the welfare of the people. Though her methods may not seem realistic or plausible, Lysistrata understands the power of sex as a driving force. Especially clever is her strategy to bring out a naked young slave girl, naming her ‘Reconciliation’ and using her to keep both the Athenian and Spartan delegates suitably distracted during the negotiations for peace. She is confident, decisive, and a true leader. It is not surprising that she is considered an icon by feminists across the globe. There are numerous instances, from all over the world, of women going on similar sex strikes and being hailed as modern day Lysistratas by social media. Lysistrata is much more than the woman who instigates the Athenian womenfolk to go on a sex strike. She has all the qualities of a good warrior and statesperson. Her main objective, as discussed in a previous section, is to end the war between Athens and Sparta. Aristophanes identifies her with Athena, protectress of the city and goddess of war and wisdom. Towards the end of the play, Lysistrata’s appearance with Athena’s aegis puts the stamp of divine approval on her actions. 8. LYSISTRATA 150 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English Greek comedy was physical in nature and Lysistrata provides numerous occasions for such humour. Confrontations between the old men and old women of the two choruses are a parody of actual battle. The old men, lugging logs of wood and being drenched in water; the Magistrate being decked in feminine garb; the policemen being beaten up by the women; and the Spartan and Athenian delegates moving around the stage, trying to hide their erections: all these add a farcical element to the play. The play, to a great extent, depends on bawdy language, double entendres, and puns - mostly sexual in nature – for its humour. There is a protracted scene between Myrrhine and her husband Cinesias, which provides much of the sex comedy. The costumes worn by many of the characters in Ancient Greek Comedy would also have elicited laughter: distorted features on the comic masks, short tunics with padded backs and bellies, and fake leather phalluses visible. In Greek comedy, fools usually sported large, false genitals - considered a sign of stupidity. On stage, female nudity would have been depicted through body suits worn by the male actors; more hilarious than offensive. In addition, there is the suggestive visual metaphor in the stage set, with the women guarding the gate to the Acropolis and the men, unsuccessfully, trying to penetrate it with logs of wood. It becomes symbolic of the sex strike at the centre of the play. Bordering on the obscene and discomfiting for a modern audience, such scenes would have been enjoyed by the Greeks. Before dismissing the play as being vulgar and crass we must appreciate the fact that the cultural norms in ancient Greece were very different from ours. It was a society where men participated nude in athletic competitions and heroes, gods, and athletes were depicted completely or partially nude in visual art; especially sculptures and friezes. One of Dionysus’ symbols was a phallus – signifying fertility and divine male protection of the community. In fact, during religious processions, a phallus-bearer would carry a large three-dimensional model of a phallus on a pole. Outside homes and in many public spaces, it was the custom to keep rectangular marble pillars known as herms, with the torso of either the god Hermes or Dionysus and a phallus emerging midway. Any evaluation of the comedy in Lysistrata should be made, keeping these cultural and theatrical practices in mind. What is shockingly obscene for us may not have been so for Aristophanes’ audiences. But, in spite of the overtly sexual content, Lysistrata manages to get 9. LYSISTRATA AS COMIC THEATRE 151 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature its political message across. The play presents us with a strong female protagonist who takes a stand against war in her country. Questions for Discussion i) Would you agree that Lysistrata is an ‘anti-war’ play? ii) Describe Lysistrata as a leader of the Greek women. iii) Write a detailed account of Aristophanes’ treatment of the theme of gender in the play. iv) Describe some of the comic elements in the play. v) Write an essay on the role of the two choruses in Lysistrata.
