2. ARISTOTLE’S POETIC
1. ARISTOTLE: THE PHILOSOPHER
Aristotle was one of the greatest philosophers in the history of mankind. Born in the 4th century at Stagira in Macedonia, this Greek philosopher possessed remarkable intellect since his childhood. At the age of eighteen, he enrolled himself in Plato’s Academy in Athens. There, he exhibited outstanding intellect and wit. Aristotle interest laid in various domainsphysics, medicine, psychology, politics, poetry, drama, astronomy, logic, history, rhetoric, biology, ethics, natural history and mathematics. Aristotle’s ideas and concepts had such profundity that even intellectual revolutions like the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Enlightenment were not able to abate their influence on Western thinking. 1.1 Early Life Aristotle’s father, Nicomachus, was a physician in the court of Amyntas III, the king of Macedonia, who reigned in the latter part of the 4th century. From the very beginning, Aristotle was in the company of intellectual men, and this played an important role in shaping his own ideas and thoughts. In 367, when his father died, Aristotle joined Plato’s Academy, and lived there for twenty years as Plato’s student as well as his colleague. Scholars note that Plato’s philosophical debates from this period might have had a contribution from Aristotle as well. Aristotle also wrote some of his works during this period, but they got lost in the course of time. His early works were quite influenced by Plato, and were in dialogic pattern, much similar to that of Plato’s style. For instance, his early work Eudemus, majorly exhibits 1. ARISTOTLE: THE PHILOSOPHER STRUCTURE 78 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English Plato’s standpoints. Here, Aristotle opines that death brings more happiness and peace than living a life on this earth. This argument is very similar to that of Plato’s, who also says that souls are liberated from the human bodies once they are dead. 1.2 Aristotle’s Works His other works like, The History of Animals, On the Parts of Animals, and On the Generation of Animals, have garnered much praise from scientists of all ages. He is also known as the inventor of deductive knowledge and the theory of teleology. He divides his scientific researches into three parts: theoretical, practical and productive. According to Aristotle, theoretical science explores knowledge for its own sake; practical science aims at researching those aspects which deals with good conduct and virtuous actions; and, practical science looks in conduct and good deeds in individuals as well as society. Aristotle also made major contribution in the field of rhetoric. The thematic concerns were oratory skills, the art of delivery good speeches, and the strategies of persuasion in speeches. He also talked about how the control of emotions and diction were very important aspects of rhetoric. In his lifetime, Aristotle wrote around four hundred books, the topics of which span over various aspects of human knowledge. However, only thirty-one of his texts survived the test of times. Some of his notable works were: Categories, De Interpretatione, Prior Analytics, Posterior Analytics, Sophistical Refutations, Physics, Metaphysics, De Anima, History of Animals, Generation of Animals, Meteorology, Progression of Animals, Generation of Animals In 343 BCE, Aristotle went to Pella, the Macedonian capital, where he was assigned the job of tutoring Alexander, who is better known as Alexander the Great. King Philip II, Alexander’s father, was the one to appoint Aristotle as his son’s teacher. While the archives barely have any written document stating the interactions between Aristotle and Alexander, scholars and historians comment that Alexander was certainly influenced by his teacher’s teachings. In 336 BCE, Alexander ascended the throne, and it was then that Aristotle left for Athens, making their association an eight year long period. Critics and Historians note that Alexander was significantly influenced by his teacher, as many of diplomatic decisions mirrored Aristotle’s teachings. The sagacious way with which Alexander led his political life also exhibits how Aristotle’s teachings made him a wise ruler. 2. ARISTOTLE AND ALEXANDER THE GREAT 79 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature 2.1 The Lyceum In 335, Aristotle once again came back to Athens, and established his own school, the Lyceum. He dedicated this school to the god Apollo Lykeios. Lyceum became a prominent place of research of varied subjects: botany, biology, logic, music, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, cosmology, physics, the history of philosophy, metaphysics, psychology, ethics, theology, rhetoric, political history, government and political theory, and the arts. This institution eventually became one of the first distinguished library of various collected works of that period. For the next twelve years, Aristotle dedicated his life to Lyceum, where he gave numerous lectures, taught his students and carried on scientific researches. His relentless urge to learn and teach made him quite popular among his students, who were always ready to seek guidance from him. He was in the habit of explaining his concepts to students while walking within the campus, and for this Lyceum also came to be known as Peripatetic School, which literally means the school of strolling philosophers. Consequently, Aristotle’s philosophy is known as the Peripatetic System. 2.2 The Golden Mean Aristotle believed that moderation was the key to a good life. According to him, if a man learns how to strike a balance between the extremities of his emotions, then the golden mean is achieved, which helps him to lead a better life. He believed that in all aspects of life a man must find his middle course, and not let emotions astray him. When a man is able to establish a middle-ground, neither does he overdo nor does he under-do. For instance, neither is he too extravagant, nor is he too stingy. The golden mean helps the man to make correct choices in life, his actions would be right and his motives will be noble. Therefore, the golden mean helps the man to lead a happy and satisfied life. He believed that if men achieve the golden mean in their lives, the world will become a better place, without sin and malice. Check Your Progress 1 1. Write a brief note on Aristotle early life. 2. What was the name of Aristotle’s academy? Write a few words about it. 3. Explain Aristotle’s concept of the Golden Mean. 80 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English The Poetics is one of the most seminal texts written in ancient times. While the exact date of the text remains contested, researchers, scholars and critics believe that Aristotle wrote Poetics around 330 BCE. Till date, the Poetics serves as a very important document in the study of humanities and aesthetics, and its first influence dates back to the age of Renaissance. In this work, Aristotle has tried to elucidate on the fundamental issues concerning art and aesthetics. While defining and explaining art, he has also given ways on how the quality of a particular artwork can be determined. The Poetics was a reply to Plato’s theory wherein he propounded that poetry was a misrepresentation of the actual world, and, therefore, misled the people and made them immoral. However, in the Poetics Aristotle takes an absolutely different standpoint. He argues that a poet’s or an artist's work should not be seen just as a mere imitation of the material world, but should be considered as an artist’s or poet’s individual view of this world. He believed that poetry had the ability to purge the emotions of human beings and purify their souls, serving as an emotional balance in their life. Chapter 1 to 5 Aristotle began the Poetics by drawing a brief outline of what his work would entail. He elucidated on different kinds of poetry and what quality each poem could hold. He discussed the features of a meritorious poem, and also deliberated on the methods in which the poem is divided. He defined poetry as a medium to imitate life or a way of representing life as per the poet’s approach towards the physical world. There are various ways through which poetry could mirror life, by representing character, emotion, action or daily things. Aristotle said that poetry was an umbrella term that included the following under its domain: epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry and music (especially, flute and lyre). The point of differentiation among all these forms of poetry was their respective abilities to imitate life. Aristotle gave the following points to differentiate between various kinds of poetry. I. Medium of Imitation: There are various ways through which life can be imitated, and poetry is one of the most fundamental mediums of imitation. Other art forms like music and dance have a more pronounced method of imitating life as they employ instruments, bodily movements to depict life, but poetry alone, through the mode of language, veritably imitates life. 3. SUMMARY OF THE POETICS 81 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature II. Object of Imitation: What does poetry, dance, music, drama or any other form of art imitate? They imitate the actions of human beings. He argues that while imitating the action, the art must represent the action of men as more refined than they are in actual life, and, in case of representing vicious men, they should be portrayed in a more negative light. For instance, Homer will show men in a more positive light and Nichochares shows them as much worse. Here, Aristotle also makes a distinction between comedy and tragedy. He states that comedy showcased men as worse as they are, and tragedy displayed a better version of the men. III.The Mode or Manner of Imitation: There are various ways or modes through which a poet can imitate. Firstly, the poet can employ the technique of narration, wherein the poet assumes another personality and acts as an observer. Secondly, the poet speaks his own mind and narrates as the first-person narrator. Thirdly, the poet in his work brings characters to life, thereby, adopting the technique of a third person narrator. Aristotle’s opines that the emergence of poetry can be credited to two reasons. First was the man’s human instinct to imitate things around him. Second was his urge to create harmony and rhythm in the world he occupied. As the evolution of poetry proceeded, two distinct forms of poetry emerged. The first kind of poetry imitated actions of noble and good men, and eventually it evolved into a tragedy. The second kind of poetry imitated actions of vicious people in a satiric manner. The second kind of poetry shaped into epic poetry and then tragic drama. Aeschylus, Sophocles and others played an important role in improvising tragedy, which shaped into various forms like dramatic plot, dialogue and iambic verse. On the other hand, comedy was an imitation of the actions of lower type men. It represented bawdy characters. Initially, comedy was considered as an insignificant genre, but when comedy was introduced in Sicily comedic theatre, it became very popular. Epic poetry represents the actions of noble men, similar to that of tragedy. However, unlike tragedy that focusses on the happening of a single day, epic poetry transgresses the boundaries of time. It is also mostly narrative in form and is written in one kind of meter. Check Your Progress 2 1. What is the most fundamental aim of the Poetics? 2. What are the ways through which poetry can be differentiated? 82 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English Chapter 6 to 9 Tragedy is the imitation of actions of noble men, and has the following characteristics. I. It follows a specific time line, and has a proper beginning and an end. In other words, it is complete in itself. II. As it imitates actions of noble men, there are no trivialities, and, hence is serious in nature. III. The language used is decorated in its style and is also rhythmic. IV. It is not narrative in form, but represents actions. V. It brings about a catharsis within the audience, and purges their soul by arousing the emotions of pity and fear. As tragedy imitates actions of men, it is primarily concerned with presenting character and thought on stage. According to Aristotle, character and thought were the two main components which brought about the actions of men. The qualities in a character, good or bad, also determine the success of a given action. Plot, therefore, is the sequential arrangement of incidents, which is a cumulative result of character and thought as they pave the way for action. Aristotle then states six parts that define tragedy: I. Plot II. Character III. Diction IV. Thought V. Spectacle VI. Song According to Aristotle, the characteristics of a plot are: completeness, magnitude, unity, determinate structure, and universality. Completeness signifies that a tragedy will have a beginning, middle and an end. The beginning is the fundamental introduction which states the origin of the tragedy. The middle makes the course for the end to follow. Lastly, the end brings about the culmination. Magnitude simply refers to the duration of the tragedy. A tragedy must not be very long as it then becomes difficult for the audience to retain the sequences of actions. However, Aristotle believed that a tragedy becomes more beautiful if it is longer in duration, but only if it has a proper beginning, middle and end. Within these three acts, the tragedy then takes its own course of bringing about a change in the fortune of the character- from bad to good or from good to bad. Unity is another very important feature of tragedy as it binds the three acts by a common theme or idea. Determinate structure means 83 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature that the tragedy will have such sequential incidents or scenes that if any one of them is removed, it disrupts the entire tragedy. In other words, every action of the plot is extremely important, and, hence, no part can be removed. Universality means that the character’s thoughts, actions, language must be such that they do not seem artificial or fake, and are easily and universally accepted by the audience. Lastly, he states that he does not favor episodic plots as there is no sequence. As they do not follow any continuity, they have the ability to stretch beyond their limits, which makes them unnatural. Chapters 10-12 The complexity and simplicity of a plot depends on the actions that they imitate. What determines the simplicity and complexity of the plot are the following essential featuresastonishment, reversal or peripeteia, recognition and suffering. Astonishment is an essential feature of a tragedy as it helps to arouse the feelings of pity and fear among the audience. These feelings are experienced by the audience when the events unfold by surprise, and astonish the audience. Reversal means when a change occurs in the situation and the action moves in the opposite direction. For instance, in Oedipus, when the messenger comes to inform that he should unfetter himself from the fears about his mother, Oedipus’s fears increase when the messenger reveals his identity. Recognition means acquiring knowledge about something that so far remained ignored. This recognition determines the fortune of the character. When recognition combines with reversal, as in the play Oedipus, the feelings of pity and fear are produced, and this becomes a quintessential subject for tragedy. Usually, the consequence of a reversal or recognition is suffering, which is a painful action to witness. Aristotle notes that a simple plot will either have a reversal or recognition, but a complex plot may have both. All tragedies, ultimately, aim at producing the feelings of pity and fear from the audience. Aristotle then states the quantitative parts of tragedy, which are: prologue, episode, exode and choric song. The prologue forms the very first part of the tragedy, and this comes before the first utterance of the chorus. The episode is the entire tragedy that unfolds between choric songs. The exode is that section of the tragedy that has no choric songs after it. Check Your Progress 3 1. What are the characteristics of a tragedy? 2. Explain the six parts of a tragedy. 84 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English Chapters 13 to 16 Aristotle then reveals what elements are prerequisite for making a tragedy a successful one. Firstly, the best kind of tragedy is the one that has a complex plot. It should employ the techniques of reversal and recognition to imitate actions which arouse the feelings of pity and fear within the audience. However, the tragedy should not merely project a virtuous man being subjected to limitless sufferings, for that merely shocks the readers instead of giving them a chance to empathize with the character. Similarly, a vicious man’s trajectory should not be shown as moving from adversity to prosperity for this would be against the tenets of a tragedy. A tragedy is considered the best when the virtues and vices of a character are not at extreme ends, but fall in the midway. More so, if a character is shown as noble, virtuous and just, and he goes through some adversity or misfortune not because of his vice or weakness, but by some error or frailty, then the character becomes a renowned one, like Oedipus and Thyestes. A plot is considered as a well written one when the change of the fortune of the character is from bad to good, instead of good to bad. According to Aristotle, the second kind of tragedy is the one that has a double thread of plot and shows unhappy ending of good characters. Inner structure of the plot is also very crucial to a tragedy of high rank. While outward spectacle does arouse the emotion of pity and fear, inner structure may also play an important role in surfacing these emotions. The construction of the plot must be such that even without experiencing the spectacle, and only by listening, the audience should be moved emotionally. A monstrous spectacle will instigate false catharsis, and it is only pity and fear that can purge the emotions of the audience. Aristotle then points that the circumstances that make a good tragedy must include those incidents that involve close relations. For instance, a son killing his mother, a brother his own brother, etc. This traditional manner used in a tragedy should be skillfully and sagaciously used by the poet. The killing or murder can be done consciously and with complete awareness of the characters. For instance, when Medea kills her children, they are aware of this situation. There can also be an instance where the deed is done without having any awareness regarding the relationships, and the discovery occurs later, like in Oedipus. The other way can be when the hero is unable to carry on with act of murder as he Check Your Progress 4 1. What features determine the simplicity and complexity of a plot? 2. List the quantitative parts of a tragedy. 85 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature is not able to perform it. In another instance, the act of murder is about to take place but in time the true identities of the characters are revealed, and the act of murder stops. Aristotle points that the third one is the most dramatic of all the cases, and the last case is the most effective case. While talking about character, Aristotle points to four prerequisite factors that the hero must possess. Firstly, the hero must be virtuous in character, and thus exhibit goodness in his character. Secondly, the hero must be courageous and have propriety. Thirdly, a character must be true to his life. Lastly, the character must have consistency in his action. For instance, if he is inconsistent, then he should be consistently inconsistent. There are also various types of recognition. The first kind is the one where the recognition takes place by signs- marks on the body, jewelry or ornaments, some other spot or mark that reveals the secret identity of the person. This kind of recognition is the least artistic of all. The second kind of recognition is the one that is invented by will or which takes place by sudden recognition. The third one is where recognition happens from memory. For instance, a character sees an object and this triggers or stimulates his memory, and recognition takes place. The fourth type is the one where the characters use their reasoning abilities and recognize the secret identity. In the fifth one, recognition takes place when a third party, for instance a messenger, interferes and reveals the identity. In the last one, which is considered the best, the recognition occurs due to the unfolding of the incidents and the discovery occurs organically as the plot proceeds. For instance, in Oedipus Rex, recognition takes place as the plot unravels. Chapters 17 to 20 Aristotle states that the poet’s envision should be as such that he could imagine every scene before his eyes. This helps the poet in not letting any gaps or inconsistencies come in his play. He should place himself in the shoes of the spectator and not just imagine but try to work out the scenes before his eyes. He suggests that it is important for the poet to sketch a general outline and then position the scenes accordingly. In this manner, the poet is able to analyze the essence of the play and, therefore, create “unity” within the play. He then Check Your Progress 5 1. What elements are important for a tragedy to be a successful one? 2. What qualities should a hero have? 86 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English discusses how every tragedy falls into two brackets ie the complication and the resolution (also referred to as unraveling and denouement). Delineating on the concept of complication, Aristotle states that this term refers to all the incidents that happen from the beginning of the action till the climax or the turning point. In the climax, the hero’s fortune might turn from good to bad or from bad to good. Then comes the denouement or unraveling which takes place from the climax to the end, and then determines the final outcome of the hero’s fate. The four kinds of tragedy that Aristotle points at are: I. The Complex Tragedy: This kind of tragedy depends completely on the reversal of the situation and on recognition. II. The Pathetic Tragedy: In this kind of tragedy, the primary motive is passion. III. The Ethical Tragedy: When the motives are ethical, they are known as ethical tragedy. IV. The Simple Tragedy: This kind of tragedy neither has reversal nor recognition. Aristotle further suggests that a tragedy should not assume the structure of an epic. An epic holds multiple plots, and each part has a distinct magnitude. But, as a tragedy is bounded by time, it should not follow the tenets of an epic. As the aim of a tragedy is to arouse catharsis within the audience, it should primarily follow unity of action and not focus on multiple episodes. Diction is another important aspect of a tragedy. As diction expresses thought through the medium of language, it becomes one of the most vital components of a tragedy. Speech can be divided into the following parts: I. Proof and refutation II. The stimulation of emotions like pity, fear and anger. III. The suggestion of importance. Diction then automatically leads to language, which forms another important aspect. The components that are indispensable to language are: I. Letter II. Syllable III. Connecting word IV. Noun V. Verb VI. Inflexion or case VII. Sentence of Phrase 87 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature Chapters 21 to 24 Aristotle then discusses different kinds of words. He classifies words into simple and compound words. But a word may be multiple in form as well. He then classifies words into different categories. According to him, the current words are those which are generally used by people of that time and age. A strange word is the one which is alien to one land but is used frequently in another land. A metaphorical word is the one that link two unlike things. A newly coined word is the one that has not been employed in day-to-day conversation by the people but has been adopted by the poet. Other words are a lengthened word, a contracted word, or an altered word. Aristotle then notes that the best style of writing is the one that used current words and was simple to comprehend. If the poet uses unusual words, then the style becomes lofty, and this forms a disconnect between the poet and the audience. Even metaphors come out as most effective when they use ordinary words. If strange words are used in metaphors or any other literary device, the phrase becomes ineffectual as it sounds more like jargon. However, Aristotle states that a poet should have the liberty to lengthen, contract and change words to suit his style of writing. The usage of ordinary words creates a distinct language, and serves the purpose of maintaining clarity among the readers. In this manner, the poet can engage in the reader in the highest level. Aristotle then charts out the following requirements of a good epic poem: single meter, a dramatic plot, unity and all the other features of a tragedy. Unlike tragedy that focusses on a single action, an epic includes a series of episodes or a period, and, therefore, brings different characters into picture. However, similar to that of tragedy, epic poetry can also be classified as simple or complex or it can be ethical or pathetic. Also, epic poetry employs, like tragedy, reversals of situations, recognitions and scene of sufferings. There are also clear distinctions between epic poetry and tragedy. First, an epic poetry does not use song or spectacle to instigate emotions like pity and fear, and tragedy uses it in the most effective manner. Second, an epic, as the magnitude of its duration is much larger vis a vis a tragedy, it cannot be depicted in one single setting. It certainly needs multiple settings. Whereas tragedy, which focusses on a single action, can be presented in a single setting. Third is that as an epic poetry usually Check Your Progress 6 1. How is a poet able to crate unity in the play? 2. What are the four kinds of tragedy? 88 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English employs narrative form, its parameters are not bounded by the stage. Lastly, epic poetry uses hexameter as its “heroic measure” but tragedy often employs different meters as per the requirement of its plot and the speeches of its characters. According to Aristotle, in an epic poetry there should barely be any first-person narration by the poet, and the poet should not make appearances in the scenes. Also, in an epic poetry, the elements of absurdity or irrationality are allowed so as to create the factor “wonderment” for the readers. This is solely done for the pleasure of the readers. As epic poetry is not meant to be performed on stage, an absurd scene or event does not get distinctly highlighted. More so, Aristotle states that a tragedy cannot have irrational elements. The plot of the tragedy should follow certain pattern of logic and reasoning, and it is only then that it will be considered as a good drama. But, in case, the element of absurdity is introduced, the tragedy must be accepted in that manner. Chapters 25-26 Aristotle states that it is important for the poet to know that his works will be subjected to criticism, which can be good or bad. Therefore, it becomes important for the poet to learn the art of replying back to the critics. Aristotle gives three important rules for poets to consider while imitating actions of real life: I. The poets must imitate either things as they are in actuality, things as they are imagined to be, or things as they should be. II. The poet must also be true to language that is being imitated. He should mostly employ current terms or metaphors. The use of rare words should be occasional. III. The poet must always make sure that whatever he copies, he does it in the correct manner. Only when he correctly imitates the actions that the poet holds its true essence. In case, the poet mistakenly commits an error, the work does not get ruined, for it’s a human folly. However, in a nutshell, if any error that takes away the essence of the poetry is the one that actually makes a difference. Check Your Progress 7 1. What are the different categories of words? 2. State the differences between epic poetry and tragedy? 89 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature The work that gets the backlash of the critics is the one that either depicts an impossibility, illogicality, irrationality, and is contradictory in nature. However, Aristotle states that all the criticism, judgments and evaluations can be refuted only if the poem serves its purpose of holding the essence, as that is of prime importance. In conclusion to his work, Aristotle engages with the question of which form of writing is better- the epic or the tragedy. During his times, most of the critics contested that tragedy was meant for inferior class of people. On the other hand, epic poetry was meant for a cultivated audience. However, Aristotle gives a starkly opposite view of this debate. Aristotle states that critics give a harsh criticism of tragedy because it uses extravagant gestures. But, the use of extravagant gestures is not only restricted to tragedy as an epic also employs such techniques whenever required. Nevertheless, Aristotle positions tragedy on higher realm than that of epic poetry. He points at how tragedy uses various mediums to let the audience have a holistic experience and purge them of their emotions. Tragedy’s effect on the audience is much stronger than that of epic poetry as the latter, being lengthy, dilutes its impact on poetry. Also, the concept of unity, an essential feature of tragedy, is apparently absent in an epic, mitigating its influence on the readers. 4.1 Tragic Hero According to Aristotle, the tragic hero is not the epitome of virtuosity or is a quintessentially flawless character. He, much a like human, has flaws that determines his fall towards the end of a tragedy. In Aristotle’s view, a tragic hero is neither a good man nor a bad man. He has qualities that are likeable but there also exists a vice which is overtly visible from the beginning of the play. Most importantly, the audience must be able to identify with this tragic flaw. Check Your Progress 8 1. What are the three rules that a poet must consider while imitating actions in a real life? 2. According to Aristotle, which form of writing is better? 4. ARISTOTLE’S POETIC THEMES 90 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English 4.2 Tragedy vs Epic poetry One of the primary thematic concerns in the Poetics is the comparison between tragedy and epic poetry. As per the critics and scholars of Aristotle’s period, epic poetry was considered to owing more weight and significance vis a vis the tragedy, which was considered a genre for the entertainment of lower class. But Aristotle viewed tragedy from a different lens and considered it to be a higher written form. He believed that tragedy, along with entertainment and pleasure, is capable of instructing as educating its readers and audience. More so, unlike epic poetry, which cannot be performed on the stage, tragedy can be converted in the form of drama as it is not as lengthy as epic poetry. 4.3 Purging of Emotions: Catharsis Tragedies, as Aristotle believes, are able to arouse the feelings of pity and fear, which purify the underlying emotions of human, and hence releasing them of an emotional baggage. He argues that the best tragedies are those wherein the poet employs the techniques of reversal and recognition. Aristotle considers catharsis a form of redemption. When the plot of a drama is moving, the audience automatically undergoes the feelings of catharsis. The cathartic feeling that the audience experiences is because they feel pitiful for the hero, and they hold a fear that the hero’s fate might be theirs. 4.4 Poetics as Literary Criticism Aristotle’s Poetics in every sense qualifies to be an important document for literary criticism. While Plato is credited for contributing significant texts to literary criticism, scholars and critics hail Aristotle as the father of literary criticism. Aristotle’s criticism does not only limit to written form but extends to the study of aesthetics as well. Aristotle’s popularity primarily lies on his reply to Plato who had vehemently objected to poetry and other fields of arts as he believed them to be an imitation of an imitation. Aristotle, on the other hand, gave a new perspective to mimesis (imitation) and believe that every artist viewed the world through his individual lens, and, therefore, his work then becomes not a mere copy but a representation of his own perspective of the world. Aristotle draw distinct boundaries between moral and aesthetic criticism. In Poetics, Aristotle extensively discussed the genre of tragedy as well as epic poetry, stating the former to be a superior genre. 4.5 Important Terms 1. Mimesis: Mimesis simply means an artist’s imitative representation of the real world. In other words, mimesis can be explained as the process wherein the artist recreates 91 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi European Classical Literature his own perception of the real world. This means that an artist through his imagination might represent those idealistic things that are apparently not found in the real world. The artist, therefore, need not copy exactly what the world has to offer, but he has the freedom to recreate his own reality in his work. 2. Hamartia: The Greek term hamartia literally means “error”. In the context of Aristotle’s Poetics, it means a “tragic flaw” within the hero. According to Aristotle, the tragedy occurs when the hero witnesses his own downfall due to the tragic flaw inherent within him. The tragic flaw necessarily need not be his moral failing but could be simply his awareness or ignorance about something or his forgetting. 3. Anagnorisis: This term means “recognition” or “discovery”. In tragedy, when a hero or any other character gains knowledge about something that they were unaware of, that moment is described as anagnorisis. The recognition could of any kind: discovery of a family member, discovery of a hidden truth about oneself, discovery of a secret, etc. 4. Peripeteia: The term peripeteia finds its etymological roots in Greek, where it means “to change suddenly”. Aristotle uses this term to denote a reversal in a play. This reversal can be from good to bad or from bad to good, and usually takes place at the climax of the play. This moment is seen as a critical juncture, and it signals that the play is moving towards its completion. Check Your Progress 9 1. Write a short note on Aristotle’s early life. 2. According to Aristotle, what are the important features of a good tragedy? 3. What is Aristotle’s contribution as a literary critic? 4. What is the importance of a plot and character in a tragedy? 5. Do you agree with Aristotle’s view that tragedy as a genre is better than epic poetry? Give reasons. 6. Write a short note on Aristotle’s Poetics as an important critical tex
